{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T07:18:04Z","timestamp":1790666284123,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"JMIR Publications Inc.","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JMIR Med Educ"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>This paper critically assesses the role of generative AI in anatomical illustration, identifying fundamental barriers that currently preclude AI from replacing human medical illustrators. Despite the promise of unprecedented efficiency, contemporary models exhibit persistent anatomical inaccuracies and \u201challucinations\u201d of nonexistent structures\u2014flaws stemming from statistical pattern-matching rather than genuine anatomical understanding. These systems further lack pedagogical intent, clinical context, and the capacity for deliberate visual judgment, while raising unresolved ethical and copyright concerns regarding training data. Although a specialized AI for this purpose is theoretically feasible, its development as a standalone goal remains economically nonviable given the niche nature of the profession. Rather than replacing human illustrators, AI\u2019s future role will be augmentative, with the requisite anatomical intelligence likely emerging as a byproduct of broader advances in clinical applications such as surgical planning and personalized medicine. For AI-generated imagery to become educationally and clinically reliable, it will require rigorous human supervision, curated gold standard datasets, and a foundation of genuine anatomical comprehension.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2196\/92700","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T20:20:59Z","timestamp":1787257259000},"page":"e92700-e92700","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Beyond Pattern Recognition: Call for Functionally Aware AI for Anatomical Illustration"],"prefix":"10.2196","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5030-9546","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Agata Maria","family":"Kawalec-Rutkowska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2891-6083","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marian","family":"Simka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1010","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7580.2009.01181.x","article-title":"Style and non-style in anatomical illustration: from Renaissance humanism to Henry Gray","volume":"216","author":"Kemp","journal-title":"J Anat"},{"issue":"3","key":"R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"812","DOI":"10.1007\/s11999-013-3459-8","article-title":"Frank H. Netter MD and a brief history of medical illustration","volume":"472","author":"Netter","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Relat Res"},{"issue":"6","key":"R3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare11060887","article-title":"ChatGPT utility in healthcare education, research, and practice: systematic review on the promising perspectives and valid concerns","volume":"11","author":"Sallam","journal-title":"Healthcare (Basel)"},{"key":"R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3352\/jeehp.2023.20.38","article-title":"Application of artificial intelligence chatbots, including ChatGPT, in education, scholarly work, programming, and content generation and its prospects: a narrative review","volume":"20","author":"Kim","journal-title":"J Educ Eval Health Prof"},{"issue":"5","key":"R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.2432","article-title":"Anatomy\u2019s missing faces: an assessment of representation gaps in atlas and textbook imagery","volume":"17","author":"Beresheim","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"5","key":"R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1038","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.2428","article-title":"Anatomical variation is the norm: a novel curriculum framework","volume":"17","author":"Kimmorley","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4103\/vit.vit_34_24","article-title":"Teaching anatomy of the lower extremity veins: educational challenges","volume":"8","author":"Simka","journal-title":"Vasc Invest Ther"},{"issue":"8","key":"R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.67833","article-title":"Assessment of generative artificial intelligence (AI) models in creating medical illustrations for various corneal transplant procedures","volume":"16","author":"Moin","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"R9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2025.109039","article-title":"Systematic evaluation of AI-based text-to-image models for generating medical illustrations in neurosurgery: a multi-stage comparative study","volume":"257","author":"Davis","journal-title":"Clin Neurol Neurosurg"},{"key":"R10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/52155","article-title":"Using AI text-to-image generation to create novel illustrations for medical education: current limitations as illustrated by hypothyroidism and Horner syndrome","volume":"10","author":"Kumar","journal-title":"JMIR Med Educ"},{"issue":"9","key":"R11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1874","DOI":"10.1007\/s00266-023-03826-w","article-title":"The promise and pitfalls of AI-generated anatomical images: evaluating Midjourney for aesthetic surgery applications","volume":"48","author":"Buzzaccarini","journal-title":"Aesth Plast Surg"},{"issue":"3","key":"R12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.3928\/01913913-20250724-03","article-title":"Evaluating text-to-image generation in pediatric ophthalmology","volume":"63","author":"Jong","journal-title":"J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus"},{"issue":"7","key":"R13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm14072136","article-title":"A validity analysis of text-to-image generative artificial intelligence models for craniofacial anatomy illustration","volume":"14","author":"Haider","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"R14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-022-00699-2","article-title":"Explainable medical imaging AI needs human-centered design: guidelines and evidence from a systematic review","volume":"5","author":"Chen","journal-title":"NPJ Digit Med"},{"issue":"6","key":"R15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1002\/ca.70002","article-title":"Assessing the anatomical accuracy of AI-generated medical illustrations: a comparative study of text-to-image generator tools in anatomy education","volume":"38","author":"Eldesoqui","journal-title":"Clin Anat"},{"issue":"4","key":"R16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-024-02887-x","article-title":"Transparent medical image AI via an image-text foundation model grounded in medical literature","volume":"30","author":"Kim","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"issue":"2","key":"R17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.30476\/ijms.2024.104198.3777","article-title":"Enhancing medical education with AI-generated visual art: benefits and challenges","volume":"50","author":"Negahdaripour","journal-title":"Iran J Med Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"R18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.2336","article-title":"Evaluating AI-powered text-to-image generators for anatomical illustration: a comparative study","volume":"17","author":"Noel","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"R19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s00276-025-03699-5","article-title":"Text to image generators for anatomical illustrations: potential and limitations","volume":"47","author":"Pasl\u0131","journal-title":"Surg Radiol Anat"},{"issue":"4","key":"R20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.70018","article-title":"Illustrator-anatomist-clinician triad based pedagogical model in anatomy education: an auxiliary resource amidst lack of hands-on human dissection","volume":"18","author":"Creze","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"key":"R21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2023.102642","article-title":"Opinion paper: \u201cso what if ChatGPT wrote it?\u201d multidisciplinary perspectives on opportunities, challenges and implications of generative conversational AI for research, practice and policy","volume":"71","author":"Dwivedi","journal-title":"Int J Inf Manage"},{"issue":"1","key":"R22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1080\/08874417.2023.2261010","article-title":"The potential of generative artificial intelligence across disciplines: perspectives and future directions","volume":"65","author":"Ooi","journal-title":"J Comput Inf Syst"},{"issue":"1","key":"R23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1007\/s11301-025-00494-9","article-title":"Generative artificial intelligence in creative contexts: a systematic review and future research agenda","volume":"76","author":"Heigl","journal-title":"Manag Rev Q"},{"issue":"3","key":"R24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1007\/s11747-024-01044-7","article-title":"Generative AI in innovation and marketing processes: a roadmap of research opportunities","volume":"53","author":"Cillo","journal-title":"J Acad Mark Sci"},{"key":"R25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.destud.2025.101303","article-title":"AI as a co-creator and a design material: transforming the design process","volume":"97","author":"Yu","journal-title":"Des Stud"},{"issue":"3","key":"R26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1080\/17453054.2025.2473205","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in medical photography and illustration: a tool but not a replacement","volume":"47","author":"Zoltie","journal-title":"J Vis Commun Med"},{"issue":"3","key":"R27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1080\/17453054.2021.1921566","article-title":"The devil is in the details: developing a modern methodology for detailed medical illustrations","volume":"44","author":"Adams","journal-title":"J Vis Commun Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"R28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.2335","article-title":"Ethical concerns surrounding artificial intelligence in anatomy education: should AI human body simulations replace donors in the dissection room?","volume":"17","author":"Cornwall","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"11","key":"R29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1301","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.70121","article-title":"Anatomy at the threshold: teaching the human body in a hybrid age","volume":"18","author":"Cortese","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"3","key":"R30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.70002","article-title":"Legal and ethical considerations around the use of existing illustrations to generate new illustrations in the anatomical sciences","volume":"18","author":"Cornwall","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"3","key":"R31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.63744\/qmk2g3ptxa93","article-title":"AI and medical images: addressing ethical challenges to provide responsible access to historical medical illustrations","volume":"18","author":"Jaillant","journal-title":"Digit Humanit Q"},{"issue":"2","key":"R32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10676-025-09835-4","article-title":"The ethics of erroneous AI-generated scientific figures","volume":"27","author":"Skulmowski","journal-title":"Ethics Inf Technol"},{"issue":"1","key":"R33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1002\/ase.2349","article-title":"IFAA recommendations for the ethical use of anatomical images","volume":"17","author":"Cornwall","journal-title":"Anat Sci Educ"},{"issue":"1","key":"R34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-025-01971-x","article-title":"Generative AI costs in large healthcare systems, an example in revenue cycle","volume":"8","author":"Burns","journal-title":"NPJ Digit Med"},{"issue":"8067","key":"R35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-025-08866-7","article-title":"Towards conversational diagnostic artificial intelligence","volume":"642","author":"Tu","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"3","key":"R36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.3390\/ai4030034","article-title":"Explainable artificial intelligence (XAI): concepts and challenges in healthcare","volume":"4","author":"Hulsen","journal-title":"AI"},{"issue":"1","key":"R37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-024-01110-w","article-title":"Unlocking precision medicine: clinical applications of integrating health records, genetics, and immunology through artificial intelligence","volume":"32","author":"Chen","journal-title":"J Biomed Sci"},{"issue":"4","key":"R38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1038\/s41551-023-01115-0","article-title":"A framework for integrating artificial intelligence for clinical care with continuous therapeutic monitoring","volume":"9","author":"Chen","journal-title":"Nat Biomed Eng"},{"issue":"11","key":"R39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci12111451","article-title":"The application of software \u201crapid processing of perfusion and diffusion\u201d in acute ischemic stroke","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","journal-title":"Brain Sci"},{"issue":"7","key":"R40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2024.107750","article-title":"Multicenter comparison using two AI stroke CT perfusion software packages for determining thrombectomy eligibility","volume":"33","author":"Alwood","journal-title":"J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"R41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-025-01422-w","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in vascular neurology: applications, challenges, and a review of AI tools for stroke imaging, clinical decision making, and outcome prediction models","volume":"25","author":"Alqadi","journal-title":"Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep"},{"issue":"2","key":"R42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/SVIN.123.001145","article-title":"compared with human readers of acute stroke imaging for detection of intracranial vessel occlusion","volume":"4","author":"Slater","journal-title":"Stroke Vasc Interv Neurol"},{"key":"R43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2024.111798","article-title":"AI in radiology: from promise to practice - a guide to effective integration","volume":"181","author":"Katal","journal-title":"Eur J Radiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"R44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13244-025-01905-x","article-title":"Guiding AI in radiology: ESR\u2019s recommendations for effective implementation of the European AI Act","volume":"16","author":"Kotter","journal-title":"Insights Imaging"},{"issue":"3","key":"R45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics15030282","article-title":"Artificial intelligence-empowered radiology-current status and critical review","volume":"15","author":"Obuchowicz","journal-title":"Diagnostics (Basel)"},{"issue":"2","key":"R46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1053\/j.sult.2024.02.004","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in radiology: opportunities and challenges","volume":"45","author":"Flory","journal-title":"Semin Ultrasound CT MR"},{"key":"R47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloepi.2023.100130","article-title":"An AI assistant to help review and improve causal reasoning in epidemiological documents","volume":"7","author":"Cox","journal-title":"Glob Epidemiol"},{"issue":"1","key":"R48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-024-03566-x","article-title":"Integrating machine learning and artificial intelligence in life-course epidemiology: pathways to innovative public health solutions","volume":"22","author":"Chen","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"issue":"1","key":"R49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s43556-024-00238-3","article-title":"The role of artificial intelligence in pandemic responses: from epidemiological modeling to vaccine development","volume":"6","author":"Gawande","journal-title":"Mol Biomed"},{"key":"R50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-025-02362-8","article-title":"A Chinese AI tool can manage chronic disease - could it revolutionize health care?","author":"Basu","journal-title":"Nature"}],"container-title":["JMIR Medical Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T20:21:00Z","timestamp":1787257260000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/mededu.jmir.org\/2026\/1\/e92700"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]]},"references-count":50,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2196\/92700","relation":{},"ISSN":["2369-3762"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2369-3762","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]]},"article-number":"v12i2e92700"}}