{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T19:54:32Z","timestamp":1791230072276,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"JMIR Publications Inc.","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Med Internet Res"],"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>AI is increasingly incorporated into psychiatric triage, risk prediction, passive monitoring, clinical documentation, and patient-facing conversational systems. These applications may improve access, continuity, efficiency, and pattern recognition, but they also redistribute epistemic authority and complicate responsibility when harm occurs. European regulation is developed in relation to market access, data governance, risk management, and product safety, yet remains fragmented regarding civil liability, organizational negligence, and the psychiatric standard of care. This Viewpoint examines how liability and standard of care should be understood when AI becomes part of psychiatric reasoning in Europe. It advances one central thesis: psychiatric AI requires justified integration supported by layered accountability within, but not determined by, European regulation. It presents a targeted doctrinal and normative synthesis of binding European Union instruments, regulatory guidance, selected national governance materials, and psychiatric, bioethical, legal, and digital mental health literature. It distinguishes binding law from guidance and policy, and separates ex ante regulation from ex post liability, and from professional standards of care. Four illustrative domains are analyzed: conversational or therapeutic chatbots, suicide prediction, digital phenotyping and passive monitoring, and large language model documentation. Psychiatric AI raises distinctive concerns because psychiatric judgment depends heavily on testimony, contextual meaning, therapeutic trust, risk interpretation, privacy, and liberty-sensitive decisions. Existing European instruments, including the AI Act, Medical Device Regulation, General Data Protection Regulation, revised Product Liability Directive, and European Health Data Space Regulation, establish governance duties, but do not provide a harmonized fault-based liability framework for AI-assisted health care. Regulatory compliance may inform later legal assessment, but it does not determine whether psychiatric care was reasonable. The proposed standard of justified integration requires knowledge of intended use and model limits, assessment of local and patient-level applicability, active clinical interpretation, disclosure when AI use is material to consent or trust, documentation in high-stakes decisions, and organizational audit. Accountability should be distributed across developers, deployers, and clinicians according to control and preventability. Mixed-fault scenarios are therefore likely to be common. The augmented-clinician model and layered accountability are offered as normative proposals rather than settled European legal standards. Clinicians should remain responsible for contextual, patient-centered judgment; developers for design, validation, documentation, and foreseeable misuse; and deployers for procurement, training, workflow integration, local validation, monitoring, and escalation. Future empirical research should evaluate effects on clinician reliance, documentation burden, patient outcomes, coercive interventions, therapeutic trust, and feasibility across differently resourced services.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2196\/99894","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T19:23:36Z","timestamp":1791228216000},"page":"e99894-e99894","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Liability and Standard of Care in AI-Driven Psychiatric Practice: European Viewpoint"],"prefix":"10.2196","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2718-9758","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luis","family":"Madeira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9601-3142","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C\u00edntia","family":"\u00c1guas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1846-3500","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Meryam","family":"Schouler-Ocak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1438-583X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jerzy","family":"Samochowiec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1592-7656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Silvana","family":"Galderisi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5966-5723","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mariana","family":"Pinto da Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1010","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]]},"reference":[{"issue":"8","key":"R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1136\/jme-2022-108447","article-title":"Evidence, ethics and the promise of artificial intelligence in psychiatry","volume":"49","author":"McCradden","journal-title":"J Med Ethics"},{"issue":"11","key":"R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-019-1094-0","article-title":"Artificial intelligence for mental health and mental illnesses: an overview","volume":"21","author":"Graham","journal-title":"Curr Psychiatry Rep"},{"issue":"9","key":"R3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1426","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291719000151","article-title":"Machine learning in mental health: a scoping review of methods and applications","volume":"49","author":"Shatte","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"key":"R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/60589","article-title":"Use of AI in mental health care: community and mental health professionals survey","volume":"11","author":"Cross","journal-title":"JMIR Ment Health"},{"key":"R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2025.1660448","article-title":"Psychiatry in the age of AI: transforming theory, practice, and medical education","volume":"13","author":"Zheng","journal-title":"Front Public Health"},{"key":"R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.invent.2022.100518","article-title":"iHealth: the ethics of artificial intelligence and big data in mental healthcare","volume":"28","author":"Rubeis","journal-title":"Internet Interv"},{"issue":"1","key":"R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1186\/s12991-023-00476-9","article-title":"A shift in psychiatry through AI? 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