{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,17]],"date-time":"2026-06-17T17:02:57Z","timestamp":1781715777704,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"American Diabetes Association","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1766102400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.diabetesjournals.org\/journals\/pages\/license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"NIH; Bethesda, MD","award":["R01EY023397-07"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01EY023397-07"]}]},{"name":"NIH; Bethesda, MD","award":["R01EY029693-01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01EY029693-01"]}]},{"name":"NEI","award":["P30-EY008126"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P30-EY008126"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001818","name":"Research to Prevent Blindness","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001818","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000041","name":"American Diabetes Association, ADA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["11-22-IBSPM-12"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11-22-IBSPM-12"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000041","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Reeves & Mildred Almen Reeves Foundation, Inc."},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001694","name":"International Retinal Research Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001694","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100020309","name":"Vanderbilt Vision Research Center","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100020309","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["diabetesjournals.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title\/>\n                    <jats:p>Current imaging technologies cannot detect diabetic retinopathy until there has been significant permanent damage to patients\u2019 vision. We hypothesized that hyperglycemia causes retinal hypoxia, and hypoxia may lead to apoptosis of retinal cells. We performed experiments using a mouse model of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes to investigate the role of hyperglycemia in diabetic eye disease. Our experimental results indicate that diabetic retinas are significantly hypoxic compared with nondiabetic controls. Retinal hypoxia can be detected using HYPOX-4, an early-detection imaging probe, potentially before any detectable changes in the diabetic retina. In the early stages of diabetes, we did not observe any detectable changes in electroretinography response, vascular permeability in fluorescein angiography, or retinal thickness in optical coherence tomographic imaging. In addition, increased HYPOX-4 fluorescence in the diabetic retina was not associated with focal ischemia; rather, increased levels of HYPOX-4 fluorescence were observed throughout the entire diabetic retina. Moreover, hypoxia profiles in STZ-induced diabetic retinas were colocalized with TUNEL-positive apoptotic cells. To confirm the role of hyperglycemia in the diabetic retina, human retinal cells were treated under hyperglycemic conditions, and hypoxia was monitored using the pimonidazole-adduct immunostaining method. Surprisingly, retinal cells became hypoxic under hyperglycemic conditions within the first few hours. We conclude that the diabetic retina becomes hypoxic as a result of hyperglycemia in the early stage of diabetes, which could lead to the degeneration of retinal cells at later stages of the disease. In addition, HYPOX-4 could be used as a powerful early diagnostic imaging method to detect retinal hypoxia in the diabetic retina before any detectable retinopathy.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Article Highlights<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Hyperglycemia causes retinal hypoxia. Hypoxia may lead to apoptosis of retinal cells. Retinal hypoxia can be detected before any detectable changes in the diabetic retina. HYPOX-4 is a powerful early diagnostic imaging method to detect hypoxia in the diabetic retinas of living patients.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2337\/db25-0394","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,19]],"date-time":"2025-12-19T14:05:42Z","timestamp":1766153142000},"page":"538-547","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2337\/ada-journal-policies","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Imaging Hypoxia in the Diabetic Retina: A Potential Early-Detection Imaging Biomarker Before Detectable Retinopathy in Diabetes"],"prefix":"10.2337","volume":"75","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5611-9666","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Md Imam","family":"Uddin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine 1 , Nashville, TN"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University School of Engineering 2 , Nashville, 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