{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,7]],"date-time":"2026-07-07T16:30:25Z","timestamp":1783441825887,"version":"3.54.6"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]],"date-time":"2022-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1651017600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["ophrp.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["PHRP"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic rapidly spread globally. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes COVID-19, is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus with a reported fatality rate ranging from 1% to 7%, and people with immune-compromised conditions, children, and older adults are particularly vulnerable. Respiratory failure and cytokine storm-induced multiple organ failure are the major causes of death. This article highlights the innate and adaptive immune mechanisms of host cells activated in response to SARS-CoV-2 infection and possible therapeutic approaches against COVID-19. Some potential drugs proven to be effective for other viral diseases are under clinical trials now for use against COVID-19. Examples include inhibitors of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (remdesivir, favipiravir, ribavirin), viral protein synthesis (ivermectin, lopinavir\/ritonavir), and fusion of the viral membrane with host cells (chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, nitazoxanide, and umifenovir). This article also presents the intellectual groundwork for the ongoing development of vaccines in preclinical and clinical trials, explaining potential candidates (live attenuated-whole virus vaccines, inactivated vaccines, subunit vaccines, DNA-based vaccines, protein-based vaccines, nanoparticle-based vaccines, virus-like particles and mRNA-based vaccines). Designing and developing an effective vaccine (both prophylactic and therapeutic) would be a long-term solution and the most effective way to eliminate the COVID-19 pandemic.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.24171\/j.phrp.2022.0024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]],"date-time":"2022-04-27T04:05:51Z","timestamp":1651032351000},"page":"84-100","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.24171\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Immune-related therapeutics: an update on antiviral drugs and vaccines to tackle the COVID-19 pandemic"],"prefix":"10.24171","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2162-3795","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Iqra","family":"Mir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2344-6924","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sania","family":"Aamir","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5860-5158","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Syed Rizwan Hussain","family":"Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5420-4805","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Shahid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2862-8620","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Iram","family":"Amin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3298-5735","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Samia","family":"Afzal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0068-2921","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Amjad","family":"Nawaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6289-5207","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Muhammad Umer","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3081-7631","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Idrees","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"31909","reference":[{"key":"ref1","first-page":"270","volume-title":"A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin","author":"Zhou","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-020-15562-9"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25681"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0372-4"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202003-0817le"},{"key":"ref6","first-page":"1775","volume-title":"Case-fatality rate and characteristics of patients dying in relation to COVID-19 in Italy","author":"Onder","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-05991-x"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-020-06022-5"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s2213-2600(20)30161-2"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2020.117627"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.052"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s2665-9913(20)30120-x"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3886\/icpsr03124"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-017-0629-x"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0401-3"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2016.11.006"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.45123"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.01022"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5582\/bst.2020.01020"},{"key":"ref20","first-page":"1648","volume-title":"Discovery and synthesis of a phosphoramidate prodrug of a pyrrolo[2,1-f][triazin-4-amino] adenine C-Nucleoside (GS-5734) for the treatment of ebola and emerging viruses","author":"Siegel","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tmaid.2020.101615"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mbio.00221-18"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature17180"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/jiv564"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5582\/ddt.2020.01015"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aal3653"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-021-07004-8"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2183\/pjab.93.027"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41422-020-0282-0"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2013.09.015"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/asia.201900841"},{"key":"ref32","first-page":"602","volume-title":"Efficacy of favipiravir in adults with mild COVID-19: a randomized, double-blind, multicentre, placebo-controlled clinical trial","author":"Bosaeed","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2022.112700"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-08794-w"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.11.142"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007%2Fs13337-022-00755-1"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40495-020-00216-7"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.483"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25798"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciy760"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciz544"},{"key":"ref42","first-page":"12","volume-title":"Hepatitis C virus infection in pregnancy: an update","author":"Alt\u0131nbas","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2020.104787"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3906\/sag-2004-145"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s2214-109x(19)30453-x"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jac\/dkz524"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diagmicrobio.2019.03.012"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaa105"},{"key":"ref49","first-page":"1824","volume-title":"Pharmacologic treatments for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): a review","author":"Sanders","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-200363080-00004"},{"key":"ref51","first-page":"e79","volume-title":"Case of the index patient who caused tertiary transmission of COVID-19 infection in Korea: the application of lopinavir\/ritonavir for the treatment of COVID-19 infected pneumonia monitored by quantitative RT-PCR","author":"Lim","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5582\/bst.2020.01047"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s1473-3099(03)00806-5"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-020-0674-9"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/nejmoa2001017"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422x-2-69"},{"key":"ref57","first-page":"105932","volume-title":"Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine as available weapons to fight COVID-19","author":"Colson","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/ciaa237"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4155\/tde-2020-0035"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.04.046"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(20)30183-5"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s2665-9913(20)30276-9"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.07.014"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2016.04.001"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2019.07.003"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mmbr.00015-08"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2014.11.010"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1617020114"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21072657"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5582\/bst.2020.01030"},{"key":"ref72","first-page":"9","volume-title":"Antiviral activity of arbidol and its derivatives against the pathogen of severe acute respiratory syndrome in the cell cultures","author":"Khamitov","year":"2008"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101%2F2020.03.19.20038984"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/jci138745"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/nejme2002387"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/jci138003"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.4940"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-020-01415-w"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093%2Fcid%2Fciaa478"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/nejmoa2021436"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2005615117"},{"key":"ref82","first-page":"32","volume-title":"Effect of tocilizumab vs usual care in adults hospitalized with COVID-19 and moderate or severe pneumonia: a randomized clinical trial","author":"Hermine","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2020.6557"},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00325481.2022.2033563"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4161\/hv.7.10.16369"},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.12.126"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s1473-3099(20)30235-8"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101%2F2021.09.17.21263549"},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40779-021-00360-1"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9030605"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.2927"},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines8020153"},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201102834"},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25682"},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2005.18.327"},{"key":"ref96","first-page":"65","volume-title":"","author":"Baran","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(20)30211-7"},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41423-020-0400-4"},{"key":"ref99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-019-13940-6"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101%2F2021.05.07.21256652"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/vim.2020.0119"},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coi.2021.07.003"},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/a907827d"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00022"},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1601556"},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1586\/erv.10.115"},{"key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1586\/14760584.6.3.381"},{"key":"ref108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.febslet.2004.09.009"},{"key":"ref109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2567.2007.02676.x"},{"key":"ref110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14712598.2020.1752177"},{"key":"ref111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd.2017.243"},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/jb.02460-14"},{"key":"ref113","first-page":"109","volume-title":"Nucleoside modified mRNA vaccines for infectious diseases","author":"Pardi","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00262-008-0556-8"},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gene.2019.05.008"},{"key":"ref116","first-page":"299","volume-title":"Inhibition of the inflammatory pathway enhances both the in vitro and in vivo transfection activity of exogenous in vitro-transcribed mRNAs delivered by lipid nanoparticles","author":"Ohto","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2019.12.003"},{"key":"ref118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007%2Fs40475-020-00201-6"}],"container-title":["Osong Public Health and Research Perspectives"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/ophrp.org\/upload\/pdf\/j-phrp-2022-0024.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/ophrp.org\/journal\/view.php?doi=10.24171\/j.phrp.2022.0024","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/ophrp.org\/upload\/pdf\/j-phrp-2022-0024.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,29]],"date-time":"2022-04-29T05:37:52Z","timestamp":1651210672000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/ophrp.org\/journal\/view.php?doi=10.24171\/j.phrp.2022.0024"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,30]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,4]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.24171\/j.phrp.2022.0024","relation":{},"ISSN":["2210-9099","2233-6052"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2210-9099","type":"print"},{"value":"2233-6052","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,30]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2022-01-17","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2022-04-10","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2022-04-27","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published online","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2022-04-30","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Print publication","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}