{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T16:38:52Z","timestamp":1791995932912,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,1]],"date-time":"2025-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740787200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ajvr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n<jats:sec id=\"sc_a1\">\n<jats:title>OBJECTIVE<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>To assess the impact of mild hypothermia on the distribution and elimination of an IV crystalloid fluid bolus in healthy anesthetized cats using volume kinetic (VK) analysis.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sc_a2\">\n<jats:title>METHODS<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>10 adult cats were anesthetized and included in a prospective, randomized, cross-over study. The subjects were maintained either normothermic (38.3 \u00b1 \u221216.9\u2009\u00b0C) or mildly hypothermic (35 \u00b1 \u221216.9\u2009\u00b0C), with a 7-day washout period between anesthetic episodes. All cats received 20 mL\/kg of a balanced isotonic solution (Normosol-R) IV over 20 minutes, following the achievement and stabilization of target temperature. Hemoglobin concentration, PCV, and urinary output were measured at established time points and served as input variables for VK analysis.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sc_a3\">\n<jats:title>RESULTS<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Hypothermia was associated with a larger central compartment volume (V<jats:sub>c<\/jats:sub>); higher body weights were associated with an increased V<jats:sub>c<\/jats:sub> and a decreased elimination rate; higher end-tidal isoflurane concentration (ETISO) was associated with an increased V<jats:sub>c<\/jats:sub> and a higher distribution rate constant. Heart rate, blood pressure, and ETISO were significantly lower in the hypothermic group. No statistically significant difference was observed in urinary output between groups.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sc_a4\">\n<jats:title>CONCLUSIONS<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Body weight, temperature, and ETISO were significant covariates affecting VK parameters. Hypothermia did not induce cold diuresis but was associated with an increase in V<jats:sub>c<\/jats:sub>. The negative relationship between body weight and the elimination rate constant requires further verification. Hypothermia was associated with lower heart rate and blood pressure despite reduced ETISO.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec id=\"sc_a5\">\n<jats:title>CLINICAL RELEVANCE<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Hypothermia was associated with smaller plasma volume expansion from fluid bolus. Fluid dosing based on ideal body weight should be considered to avoid overdosing.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.24.09.0279","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,23]],"date-time":"2024-12-23T14:46:40Z","timestamp":1734965200000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Mild hypothermia is associated with altered volume kinetic parameters of an intravenous crystalloid fluid bolus in healthy isoflurane-anesthetized cats"],"prefix":"10.2460","volume":"86","author":[{"given":"Stefania","family":"Gelendi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3661-4763","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Xiu Ting","family":"Yiew","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0468-0256","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Shane","family":"Bateman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8577-685X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Katherine","family":"Gerken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4279-1966","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Kendon W.","family":"Kuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William R.","family":"Ravis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison College of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aime K.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pen-Ting","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1272","reference":[{"key":"B1","series-title":"August\u2019s Consultations in Feline Internal Medicine","first-page":"843","article-title":"Feline circulatory shock","year":"2016","unstructured":"Rudloff E, Kirby R. Feline circulatory shock. In: Little SE, ed. August\u2019s Consultations in Feline Internal Medicine. 6th ed. Saunders; 2016:843\u2013858."},{"issue":"3","key":"B2","series-title":"J Feline Med Surg","first-page":"175","article-title":"The flat cat: 1. a logical and practical approach to management of this challenging presentation","volume":"15","author":"Murphy K","year":"2013","unstructured":"Murphy K. The flat cat: 1. a logical and practical approach to management of this challenging presentation. J Feline Med Surg. 2013;15(3):175\u2013188. doi:10.1177\/1098612X13477538"},{"issue":"6","key":"B3","series-title":"Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet","first-page":"506","article-title":"Hypothermia in critically ill dogs and cats","volume":"23","author":"Oncken AK","year":"2001","unstructured":"Oncken AK, Kirby R, Rudloff E. Hypothermia in critically ill dogs and cats. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet. 2001;23(6):506\u2013521."},{"issue":"6","key":"B4","series-title":"Anesth Analg","first-page":"1824","article-title":"Arterial pressure and the rate of elimination of crystalloid fluid","volume":"124","author":"Hahn RG","year":"2017","unstructured":"Hahn RG. Arterial pressure and the rate of elimination of crystalloid fluid. Anesth Analg. 2017;124(6):1824\u20131833. doi:10.1213\/ANE.0000000000002075"},{"key":"B5","series-title":"Small Animal Critical Care Medicine","first-page":"810","article-title":"Hypothermia","author":"Todd J","year":"2022","unstructured":"Todd J. Hypothermia. In: Silverstein DC, Hopper K, eds. Small Animal Critical Care Medicine. 3rd ed. Elsevier; 2022:810\u2013816."},{"issue":"2","key":"B6","series-title":"J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio)","first-page":"151","article-title":"Hypothermia and targeted temperature management in cats and dogs","volume":"27","author":"Brodeur AW","year":"2017","unstructured":"Brodeur AW. Hypothermia and targeted temperature management in cats and dogs. J Vet Emerg Crit Care (San Antonio). 2017;27(2):151\u2013163. doi:10.1111\/vec.12572"},{"issue":"2","key":"B7","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"470","article-title":"Volume kinetics for infusion fluids","volume":"113","author":"Hahn RG","year":"2010","unstructured":"Hahn RG. Volume kinetics for infusion fluids. Anesthesiology. 2010;113(2):470\u2013481. doi:10.1097\/ALN.0b013e3181dcd88f"},{"issue":"5","key":"B8","series-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol Scand","first-page":"570","article-title":"Understanding volume kinetics","volume":"64","author":"Hahn RG","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hahn RG. Understanding volume kinetics. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2020;64(5):570\u2013578. doi:10.1111\/aas.13533"},{"issue":"7","key":"B9","series-title":"Eur J Anaesthesiol","first-page":"475","article-title":"The half-life of infusion fluids: an educational review","volume":"33","author":"Hahn RG","year":"2016","unstructured":"Hahn RG, Lyons G. The half-life of infusion fluids: an educational review. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2016;33(7):475\u2013482. doi:10.1097\/EJA.0000000000000436"},{"issue":"2","key":"B10","series-title":"Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol","first-page":"213","article-title":"Pharmacokinetic aspects of fluid therapy","volume":"23","author":"Svensen CH","year":"2009","unstructured":"Svensen CH, Rodhe PM, Prough DS. Pharmacokinetic aspects of fluid therapy Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2009;23(2):213\u2013224. doi:10.1016\/j.bpa.2008.11.003"},{"issue":"1","key":"B11","series-title":"J Vet Emerg Crit Care","first-page":"22","article-title":"The HemoCue for point-of-care hemoglobin measurement and packed cell volume estimation in cats","volume":"15","author":"Posner LP","year":"2005","unstructured":"Posner LP, Erb HN, Gleed RD. The HemoCue for point-of-care hemoglobin measurement and packed cell volume estimation in cats. J Vet Emerg Crit Care. 2005;15(1):22\u201325."},{"key":"B12","series-title":"Front Vet Sci","first-page":"587106","article-title":"Understanding volume kinetics: the role of pharmacokinetic modeling and analysis in fluid therapy","volume":"7","author":"Yiew XT","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yiew XT, Bateman SW, Hahn RG, Bersenas AME, Muir WW. Understanding volume kinetics: the role of pharmacokinetic modeling and analysis in fluid therapy. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:587106. doi:10.3389\/fvets.2020.587106"},{"key":"B13","series-title":"Microvasc Res","first-page":"104599","article-title":"Evidence of serial connection between the plasma volume and 2 interstitial fluid compartments","volume":"151","author":"Hahn RG","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hahn RG. Evidence of serial connection between the plasma volume and 2 interstitial fluid compartments. Microvasc Res. 2024;151:104599. doi:10.1016\/j.mvr.2023.104599"},{"key":"B14","series-title":"Front Vet Sci","first-page":"587564","article-title":"Evaluation of the distribution and elimination of balanced isotonic crystalloid, 5% hypertonic saline, and 6% tetrastarch 130\/0.4 using volume kinetic modeling and analysis in healthy conscious cats","volume":"7","author":"Yiew XT","year":"2020","unstructured":"Yiew XT, Bateman SW, Hahn RG, Bersenas AME. Evaluation of the distribution and elimination of balanced isotonic crystalloid, 5% hypertonic saline, and 6% tetrastarch 130\/0.4 using volume kinetic modeling and analysis in healthy conscious cats. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:587564. doi:10.3389\/fvets.2020.587564"},{"issue":"1","key":"B15","series-title":"Vet Anaesth Analg","first-page":"e113","article-title":"Volume kinetic analysis of 2 crystalloid fluid bolus rates in anesthetized cats","volume":"50","author":"Liao P","year":"2023","unstructured":"Liao P, Ravis W, Clark-Price S, Gerken K, Duran S, Elrod S. Volume kinetic analysis of 2 crystalloid fluid bolus rates in anesthetized cats. Vet Anaesth Analg. 2023;50(1):e113. doi:10.1016\/j.vaa.2022.09.017"},{"issue":"3","key":"B16","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"429","article-title":"The effect of hypothermia on isoflurane MAC in children","volume":"94","author":"Liu M","year":"2001","unstructured":"Liu M, Hu X, Liu J. The effect of hypothermia on isoflurane MAC in children. Anesthesiology. 2001;94(3):429\u2013432. doi:10.1097\/00000542-200103000-00011"},{"issue":"6","key":"B17","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"1152","article-title":"Hypothermia eliminates isoflurane requirements at 20\u00b0 C","volume":"78","author":"Antognini JF","year":"1993","unstructured":"Antognini JF. Hypothermia eliminates isoflurane requirements at 20\u00b0 C. Anesthesiology. 1993;78(6):1152\u20131156. doi:10.1097\/00000542-199306000-00020"},{"key":"B18","series-title":"Sci Rep","first-page":"1388","article-title":"Anesthesia-induced hypothermia mediates decreased ARC gene and protein expression through ERK\/MAPK inactivation","volume":"3","author":"Whittington RA","year":"2013","unstructured":"Whittington RA, Bretteville A, Vir\u00e1g L, et al. Anesthesia-induced hypothermia mediates decreased ARC gene and protein expression through ERK\/MAPK inactivation. Sci Rep. 2013;3:1388. doi:10.1038\/srep01388"},{"issue":"3","key":"B19","series-title":"Am J Physiol","first-page":"R524","article-title":"Mechanisms for the diuresis of acute cold exposure: role for vasopressin?","volume":"264","author":"Allen DE","year":"1993","unstructured":"Allen DE, Gellai M. Mechanisms for the diuresis of acute cold exposure: role for vasopressin? Am J Physiol. 1993;264(3):R524\u2013R532. doi:10.1152\/ajpregu.1993.264.3.R524"},{"issue":"10","key":"B20","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","first-page":"1273","article-title":"Effects of anesthesia, surgery, and intravenous administration of fluids on plasma antidiuretic hormone concentrations in healthy dogs","volume":"61","author":"Hauptman JG","year":"2000","unstructured":"Hauptman JG, Richter MA, Wood SL, Nachreiner RF. Effects of anesthesia, surgery, and intravenous administration of fluids on plasma antidiuretic hormone concentrations in healthy dogs. Am J Vet Res. 2000;61(10):1273\u20131276. doi:10.2460\/ajvr.2000.61.1273"},{"issue":"4","key":"B21","series-title":"Can Anaesth Soc J","first-page":"312","article-title":"Effects of general anaesthesia and surgery on renal function and plasma ADH levels","volume":"25","author":"Ishihara H","year":"1978","unstructured":"Ishihara H, Ishida K, Oyama T, Kudo T, Kudo M. Effects of general anaesthesia and surgery on renal function and plasma ADH levels. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1978;25(4):312\u2013318. doi:10.1007\/BF03005655"},{"issue":"1","key":"B22","series-title":"Anesthesiology","first-page":"24","article-title":"Population volume kinetics predicts retention of 0.9% saline infused in awake and isoflurane-anesthetized volunteers","volume":"107","author":"Norberg A","year":"2007","unstructured":"Norberg A, Hahn RG, Li H, et al. Population volume kinetics predicts retention of 0.9% saline infused in awake and isoflurane-anesthetized volunteers. Anesthesiology. 2007;107(1):24\u201332. doi:10.1097\/01.anes.0000268387.34758.6d"},{"issue":"6","key":"B23","series-title":"Function (Oxf)","first-page":"zqab042","article-title":"Role of renal sympathetic nerve activity in volatile anesthesia\u2019s effect on renal excretory function","volume":"2","author":"Taavo M","year":"2021","unstructured":"Taavo M, Rundgren M, Frykholm P, et al. Role of renal sympathetic nerve activity in volatile anesthesia\u2019s effect on renal excretory function. Function (Oxf). 2021;2(6):zqab042. doi:10.1093\/function\/zqab042"},{"issue":"2","key":"B24","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","first-page":"182","article-title":"Cardiopulmonary effects of anesthesia induced and maintained with isoflurane in cats","volume":"59","author":"Hodgson DS","year":"1998","unstructured":"Hodgson DS, Dunlop CI, Chapman PL, Grandy JL. Cardiopulmonary effects of anesthesia induced and maintained with isoflurane in cats. Am J Vet Res. 1998;59(2):182\u2013185."},{"issue":"3","key":"B25","series-title":"Neurochem Int","first-page":"235","article-title":"Effects of moderate hypothermia on in situ cardiac sympathetic nerve endings","volume":"40","author":"Kitagawa HA","year":"2002","unstructured":"Kitagawa HA. Effects of moderate hypothermia on in situ cardiac sympathetic nerve endings. Neurochem Int. 2002;40(3):235\u2013242. doi:10.1016\/s0197-0186(01)00071-7"},{"issue":"2","key":"B26","series-title":"J Appl Physiol (1985)","first-page":"622","article-title":"Hypothermia reduces ischemia- and stimulation-induced myocardial interstitial norepinephrine and acetylcholine releases","volume":"102","author":"Kawada T","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kawada T. Hypothermia reduces ischemia- and stimulation-induced myocardial interstitial norepinephrine and acetylcholine releases. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2007;102(2):622\u2013627. doi:10.1152\/japplphysiol.00622.2006"},{"issue":"3","key":"B27","series-title":"Resuscitation","first-page":"189","article-title":"The physiological response to norepinephrine during hypothermia and rewarming","volume":"39","author":"Weiss SJ","year":"1998","unstructured":"Weiss SJ. The physiological response to norepinephrine during hypothermia and rewarming. Resuscitation. 1998;39(3):189\u2013195. doi:10.1016\/s0300-9572(98)00137-3"},{"issue":"3","key":"B28","series-title":"Br J Anaesth","first-page":"384","article-title":"Revised Starling equation and the glycocalyx model of transvascular fluid exchange: an improved paradigm for prescribing intravenous fluid therapy","volume":"108","author":"Woodcock TE","year":"2012","unstructured":"Woodcock TE, Woodcock TM. Revised Starling equation and the glycocalyx model of transvascular fluid exchange: an improved paradigm for prescribing intravenous fluid therapy. Br J Anaesth. 2012;108(3):384\u2013394. doi:10.1093\/bja\/aer515"},{"issue":"4","key":"B29","series-title":"Q J Exp Physiol Cogn Med Sci","first-page":"385","article-title":"Some circulatory responses to haemorrhage in the cat: a critical level of blood volume for the onset of hypotension","volume":"50","author":"Groom AC","year":"1965","unstructured":"Groom AC, Rowlands S, Thomas HW. Some circulatory responses to haemorrhage in the cat: a critical level of blood volume for the onset of hypotension. Q J Exp Physiol Cogn Med Sci. 1965;50(4):385\u2013405. doi:10.1113\/expphysiol.1965.sp001805"},{"key":"B30","series-title":"BMC Nephrol","first-page":"176","article-title":"Actual versus ideal body weight for acute kidney injury diagnosis and classification in critically ill patients","volume":"15","author":"Thongprayoon C","year":"2014","unstructured":"Thongprayoon C, Cheungpasitporn W, Akhoundi A, Ahmed AH, Kashani KB. Actual versus ideal body weight for acute kidney injury diagnosis and classification in critically ill patients. BMC Nephrol. 2014;15:176. doi:10.1186\/1471-2369-15-176"},{"issue":"5","key":"B31","series-title":"Shock","first-page":"737","article-title":"Urine output calculated using actual body weight may result in overestimation of acute kidney injury for obese patients","volume":"56","author":"Jiang J","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jiang J, Zhang J, Liu Y, Xu D, Peng Z. Urine output calculated using actual body weight may result in overestimation of acute kidney injury for obese patients. Shock. 2021;56(5):737\u2013743. doi:10.1097\/SHK.0000000000001789"},{"issue":"1","key":"B32","series-title":"Korean Soc Pharmacol","first-page":"61","article-title":"Cardiovascular changes of cat in hypothermia","volume":"19","author":"Ahn YS","year":"1983","unstructured":"Ahn YS, Ko CM, Lee WC. Cardiovascular changes of cat in hypothermia. Korean Soc Pharmacol. 1983;19(1):61\u201369."},{"issue":"5","key":"B33","series-title":"Crit Care Med","first-page":"1241","article-title":"The highs and lows of blood pressure: toward meaningful clinical targets in patients with shock","volume":"42","author":"Magder SA","year":"2014","unstructured":"Magder SA. The highs and lows of blood pressure: toward meaningful clinical targets in patients with shock. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(5):1241\u20131251. doi:10.1097\/CCM.0000000000000324"},{"issue":"6","key":"B34","series-title":"Am J Physiol","first-page":"H2050","article-title":"Determinants of stroke volume and systolic and diastolic aortic pressure","volume":"270","author":"Stergiopulos N","year":"1996","unstructured":"Stergiopulos N, Meister JJ, Westerhof N. Determinants of stroke volume and systolic and diastolic aortic pressure. Am J Physiol. 1996;270(6):H2050\u2013H2059. doi:10.1152\/ajpheart.1996.270.6.H2050"},{"issue":"2","key":"B35","series-title":"Circ Res","first-page":"178","article-title":"Pressure and flow generated by the left ventricle against different impedances","volume":"32","author":"Elzinga G","year":"1973","unstructured":"Elzinga G, Westerhof N. Pressure and flow generated by the left ventricle against different impedances. Circ Res. 1973;32(2):178\u2013186. doi:10.1161\/01.res.32.2.178"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Veterinary Research"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/view\/journals\/ajvr\/86\/3\/ajvr.24.09.0279.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/ajvr\/86\/3\/ajvr.24.09.0279.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/ajvr\/86\/3\/ajvr.24.09.0279.xml","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T13:43:00Z","timestamp":1740750180000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/view\/journals\/ajvr\/86\/3\/ajvr.24.09.0279.xml"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,1]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2460\/ajvr.24.09.0279","relation":{},"ISSN":["0002-9645","1943-5681"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0002-9645","type":"print"},{"value":"1943-5681","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,1]]}}}