{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T22:46:59Z","timestamp":1775083619646,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":84,"publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775001600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ajvr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a1\">\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To train a deep learning\u2013based markerless gait analysis model from random initialization, tailored for canine gait analysis, in clinical settings and to validate against 2-D marker\u2013based systems.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a2\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This prospective observational study used 408 client-owned dogs of more than 30 breeds, ranging from small to large body types. Dogs walked or trotted a 3.3-m straight walkway and were recorded via a lateral single-camera setup using a smartphone camera (1080p resolution, 30 frames\/s). Of these, 374 dogs contributed 20,000 markerless images for model training. For model validation and testing, 34 dogs (20 for the validation set and 14 for the test set) were recorded with physical markers that were directly attached to specific bony landmarks by a veterinarian to generate ground-truth data, and each subset included 10 breeds representing a range of sizes and morphologies. The ViTPose-L model was further trained from random initialization on the canine-specific dataset. Accuracy was evaluated using the Common Objects in Context (COCO)-style mean average precision, normalized keypoint error, and percentage of correct keypoints.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a3\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The markerless model achieved high accuracy, with a mean average precision of 96.6%, mean normalized keypoint error of 2.29 and percentage of correct keypoints at 0.05 of 92.62%. The model\u2019s performance exceeded previously reported benchmarks on public datasets.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a4\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A deep learning\u2013based markerless gait analysis system shows promising but early-stage accuracy for canine landmark localization compared with 2-D marker\u2013based data.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a5\">\n                    <jats:title>Clinical Relevance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This system may offer clinical utility for canine gait assessment, but further validation across breeds and environments is needed before routine use.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.25.09.0337","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T18:44:56Z","timestamp":1767638696000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A deep learning\u2013based markerless gait analysis model for dogs shows promising accuracy when validated with 2-dimensional marker\u2013based data"],"prefix":"10.2460","volume":"87","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-9757-9334","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ji-Hwan","family":"Pahk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sung-Jun","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIFORPET Corp, Seoul, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8343-2356","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ji-Hyun","family":"Seo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIFORPET Corp, Seoul, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hyun-Su","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIFORPET Corp, Seoul, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mi-Jin","family":"Son","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIFORPET Corp, Seoul, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Young-Seok","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIFORPET Corp, Seoul, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hyun-Jung","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AIFORPET Corp, Seoul, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2419-1775","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Byung-Jae","family":"Kang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea"},{"name":"BK21 FOUR Future Veterinary Medicine Leading Education and Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1272","reference":[{"key":"B1","series-title":"Veterinary Surgery: Small Animal","first-page":"1385","article-title":"Gait analysis","author":"Torres BT","year":"2018","unstructured":"Torres BT. 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