{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T17:05:18Z","timestamp":1790874318744,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ajvr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a1\">\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      To evaluate the effects of atropine and glycopyrrolate on the heart rate (HR) of Sonoran Desert toads (\n                      <jats:italic>Incilius alvarius<\/jats:italic>\n                      ).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a2\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In part 1, toads received 0.1 mg\/kg atropine IM, 0.025 mg\/kg glycopyrrolate IM, 0.05 mg\/kg glycopyrrolate IM, saline, or negative control in a randomized crossover study. Heart rate was monitored at baseline and 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, and 60 minutes. In part 2, toads received 10 mg\/kg alfaxalone IM followed by 0.05 mg\/kg glycopyrrolate or saline. Heart rate was monitored at baseline and 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 80, 100, and 120 minutes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a3\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In part 1 (n = 19), all 3 anticholinergic protocols significantly increased the HR between 3 and 15 minutes versus both controls. Atropine significantly increased the HR versus saline between 3 and 30 minutes. Both glycopyrrolate doses significantly increased the HR versus saline at 60 minutes. In part 2 (n = 10), glycopyrrolate significantly increased the HR versus saline at 10 minutes (mean HR difference 6.8 beats\/min, SE of the difference 1.467 [95% CI, 1.024 to 12.58]).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a4\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Atropine and glycopyrrolate significantly increased the HR in conscious toads, with glycopyrrolate having longer efficacy. The effective period of glycopyrrolate was briefer in alfaxalone-sedated toads.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a5\">\n                    <jats:title>Clinical Relevance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Performing safe, effective anesthesia can be challenging in amphibians given their unique physiology. Anticholinergic drugs are commonly used in veterinary medicine to address anesthesia-induced bradycardia. Additional studies are indicated to further evaluate the clinical efficacy of anticholinergics in amphibians.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.26.05.0215","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,7]],"date-time":"2026-08-07T12:21:51Z","timestamp":1786105311000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Atropine and glycopyrrolate significantly raise the heart rate of Sonoran Desert toads (Incilius alvarius)"],"prefix":"10.2460","volume":"87","author":[{"given":"Kaycee N.","family":"Moyer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5673-7218","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Brand\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3612-5548","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Hugues","family":"Beaufr\u00e8re","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Sanchez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5414-0816","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Julianne E.","family":"McCready","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1272","reference":[{"key":"B1","series-title":"2024 AVMA Pet Ownership Sourcebook","author":"Kent M","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kent M. 2024 AVMA Pet Ownership Sourcebook. 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