{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T19:18:51Z","timestamp":1787771931443,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787702400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ajvr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a1\">\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To determine if metoclopramide has a prokinetic effect on gastrointestinal (GI) contraction frequency and transit time in conscious pigeons and those with sedation-induced ileus.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a2\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study took place between November and December 2025 at a veterinary teaching hospital. Clinically healthy adult pigeons were assigned to treatment groups as follows: saline (conscious control), saline\/metoclopramide (conscious treatment), butorphanol\/midazolam\/saline (sedated control), or butorphanol\/midazolam\/metoclopramide (sedated treatment), all given IM with oral barium sulfate. Serial fluoroscopic cine loops were recorded at set time intervals. Amount of contrast remaining, contraction frequency, and time to contrast first noted were recorded for the crop, proventriculus, ventriculus, and small intestines. Linear mixed models were used to evaluate the effect of treatment on score and count outcomes over time. Event times were approximated using the midpoint of the detection interval and censored if greater than the observation period.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a3\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>12 pigeons were assigned to 4 treatment groups in a randomized, complete crossover design. Administering midazolam and butorphanol resulted in significantly prolonged transit times and decreased GI contractions. The conscious treatment group did not have faster transit or more frequent GI contractions compared to the conscious control group. There was no significant difference in transit time or contraction frequency between the sedated control and sedated treatment groups. One bird regurgitated once but did not require intervention.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a4\">\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Metoclopramide did not exhibit observable prokinetic effects.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"sc_a5\">\n                    <jats:title>Clinical Relevance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Metoclopramide at 2 mg\/kg did not exhibit observable prokinetic effects in neither conscious pigeons nor those with sedation-induced ileus.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.26.05.0239","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T18:21:46Z","timestamp":1787768506000},"page":"1-10","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Metoclopramide does not enhance upper gastrointestinal motility in clinically healthy pigeons (Columba livia domestica) or those with sedation-induced functional ileus"],"prefix":"10.2460","author":[{"given":"Mio","family":"Ito","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen J.","family":"Divers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicole","family":"Sallaberry-Pincheira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA"},{"name":"Unidad De Rehabilitacion De Fauna Silvestre, Escuela De Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad De Ciencias De La Vida, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle Waligora","family":"Kendall","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lauren","family":"Shusterman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hannah","family":"Temples","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haley","family":"Carr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robson Fortes","family":"Giglio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1272","reference":[{"key":"B1","series-title":"Avian Medicine","first-page":"637","article-title":"Pharmaceutics commonly used in avian medicine","author":"Bailey TA","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bailey TA, Apo MM. Pharmaceutics commonly used in avian medicine. In: Samour J, ed. Avian Medicine. 3rd ed. Mosby Elsevier; 2016;637\u2013678."},{"key":"B2","series-title":"Clinical Avian Medicine","first-page":"411","article-title":"Evaluating and treating the gastrointestinal system","author":"Gelis S","year":"2006","unstructured":"Gelis S. Evaluating and treating the gastrointestinal system. In: Harrison GJ, Lightfoot TL, eds. Clinical Avian Medicine. Spix Publishing; 2006;411\u2013440."},{"key":"B3","series-title":"Avian Medicine and Surgery","first-page":"419","article-title":"Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract","author":"Hoefer HL","year":"1997","unstructured":"Hoefer HL. Diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. In: Altman RB, Clubb SL, Dorrestein GM, et al, eds. Avian Medicine and Surgery. Saunders; 1997;419\u2013453."},{"issue":"2","key":"B4","series-title":"Sem Avian Exotic Pet Med","first-page":"42","article-title":"Avian gastrointestinal anatomy and physiology","volume":"8","author":"Klasing KC","year":"1999","unstructured":"Klasing KC. Avian gastrointestinal anatomy and physiology. Sem Avian Exotic Pet Med. 1999;8(2):42\u201350. doi:10.1016\/S1055-937X(99)80036-X"},{"issue":"2","key":"B5","series-title":"Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract","first-page":"425","article-title":"Avian gastroenterology: noninfectious and infectious disease","volume":"28","author":"Hollwarth A","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hollwarth A, Prieto LG. Avian gastroenterology: noninfectious and infectious disease. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 2025;28(2):425\u2013439. doi:10.1016\/j.cvex.2024.11.010"},{"issue":"2","key":"B6","series-title":"Am J Physiol","first-page":"R333","article-title":"Avian basal metabolic rates: their association with body composition and energy expenditure in nature","volume":"259","author":"Daan S","year":"1990","unstructured":"Daan S, Masman D, Groenewold A. Avian basal metabolic rates: their association with body composition and energy expenditure in nature. Am J Physiol. 1990;259(2):R333\u2013R340. doi:10.1152\/ajpregu.1990.259.2.R333"},{"issue":"2","key":"B7","series-title":"Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract","first-page":"453","article-title":"Therapies in exotic animal gastroenterology","volume":"28","author":"McCready JE","year":"2025","unstructured":"McCready JE. Therapies in exotic animal gastroenterology. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 2025;28(2):453\u2013483. doi:10.1016\/j.cvex.2024.11.011"},{"issue":"11","key":"B8","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","first-page":"1616","article-title":"Effect of metoclopramide on fed-state gastric myoelectric and motor activity in dogs","volume":"57","author":"Hall J","year":"1996","unstructured":"Hall J, Solie T, Seim H, Rwedt DC. Effect of metoclopramide on fed-state gastric myoelectric and motor activity in dogs. Am J Vet Res. 1996;57(11):1616\u20131622. doi:10.2460\/ajvr.1996.57.11.1616"},{"issue":"1","key":"B9","series-title":"Can Vet J","first-page":"35","article-title":"A comparison between maropitant and metoclopramide for the prevention of morphine-induced nausea and vomiting in dogs","volume":"58","author":"Augusto M","year":"2017","unstructured":"Augusto M, Lorenzutti MMF, Nicol\u00e1s J, Himelfarb MA, Invaldi SH, Zarazaga MP. A comparison between maropitant and metoclopramide for the prevention of morphine-induced nausea and vomiting in dogs. Can Vet J 2017;58(1):35\u201338."},{"issue":"4","key":"B10","series-title":"J Vet Intern Med","first-page":"1440","article-title":"Effect of metoclopramide, erythromycin and exenatide on solid phase gastric emptying in healthy cats","volume":"34","author":"Husnik R","year":"2020","unstructured":"Husnik R, Gaschen FP, Fletcher J, Gaschen L. Effect of metoclopramide, erythromycin and exenatide on solid phase gastric emptying in healthy cats. J Vet Intern Med. 2020;34(4):1440\u20131446. doi:10.1111\/jvim.15787"},{"issue":"4","key":"B11","series-title":"Br J Clin Pharmacol","first-page":"371","article-title":"The pharmacokinetics of metoclopramide in man with observations in the dog","volume":"9","author":"Bateman D","year":"1980","unstructured":"Bateman D, Kahn C, Davies D. The pharmacokinetics of metoclopramide in man with observations in the dog. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1980;9(4):371\u2013377. doi:10.1111\/j.1365-2125.1980.tb01064.x"},{"issue":"1","key":"B12","series-title":"J Avian Med Surg","first-page":"1","article-title":"Evaluation of gastrointestinal tract transit times using barium-impregnated polyethylene spheres and barium sulfate suspension in a domestic pigeon (Columba livia) model","volume":"24","author":"Bloch RA","year":"2010","unstructured":"Bloch RA, Cronin K, Hoover JP, Pechman RD, Payton ME. Evaluation of gastrointestinal tract transit times using barium-impregnated polyethylene spheres and barium sulfate suspension in a domestic pigeon (Columba livia) model. J Avian Med Surg. 2010;24(1):1\u20138. doi:10.1647\/2008-043R.1"},{"issue":"4","key":"B13","series-title":"J Avian Med Surg","first-page":"286","article-title":"Effects of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol on gastrointestinal transit time and motility in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus)","volume":"32","author":"Martel A","year":"2018","unstructured":"Martel A, Mans C, Doss GA, Williams JM. Effects of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol on gastrointestinal transit time and motility in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus). J Avian Med Surg. 2018;32(4):286\u2013293. doi:10.1647\/2017-266"},{"issue":"1","key":"B14","series-title":"Neuropsychopharmacol Rep","first-page":"e12499","article-title":"The association between benzodiazepine prescriptions and the risk of laxative use in schizophrenia treatment","volume":"45","author":"Ochi S","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ochi S, Tsuboi T, Hasegawa N, et al. The association between benzodiazepine prescriptions and the risk of laxative use in schizophrenia treatment. Neuropsychopharmacol Rep. 2025;45(1):e12499. doi:10.1002\/npr2.12499"},{"issue":"1","key":"B15","series-title":"Korean J Anesthesiol","first-page":"133","article-title":"Total postoperative opioid dose is an independent risk factor for prolonged postoperative ileus after laparoscopic colorectal surgery: a case-control study","volume":"77","author":"Ju H","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ju H, Shen K, Li J, Feng Y. Total postoperative opioid dose is an independent risk factor for prolonged postoperative ileus after laparoscopic colorectal surgery: a case-control study. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2024;77(1):133\u2013138. doi:10.4097\/kja.22792"},{"key":"B16","series-title":"BMC Vet Res","first-page":"6","article-title":"Metoclopramide-induced central nervous system depression in the chicken","author":"Al-Zubaidy MH","year":"2005","unstructured":"Al-Zubaidy MH, Mohammad FK. Metoclopramide-induced central nervous system depression in the chicken. BMC Vet Res. 2005;1:6. doi:10.1186\/1746-6148-1-6"},{"key":"B17","series-title":"Current Therapy in Avian Medicine and Surgery","first-page":"795","article-title":"Appendix 1 - table of common drugs and approximate doses","author":"Carpenter JW","year":"2016","unstructured":"Carpenter JW, Hawkins MG, Barron H. Appendix 1 - table of common drugs and approximate doses. In: Speer B, ed. Current Therapy in Avian Medicine and Surgery. Elsevier; 2016:795\u2013824."},{"key":"B18","series-title":"Avian Medicine: Principles and Application","first-page":"457","article-title":"Formulary","author":"Ritchie BW","year":"1994","unstructured":"Ritchie BW, Harrison GJ. Formulary. In: Avian Medicine: Principles and Application. Wingers Publishing; 1994:457\u2013478."},{"key":"B19","series-title":"Current Therapy in Avian Medicine and Surgery Volume II","first-page":"e1","article-title":"Appendix 1: table of common drugs and approximate doses.","author":"Carpenter JW","year":"2025","unstructured":"Carpenter JW, Hawkins MG, Barron HW, et al. Appendix 1: table of common drugs and approximate doses. In: Speer BL, van Zeeland YRA, eds. Current Therapy in Avian Medicine and Surgery Volume II. Elsevier; 2025:e1\u2013e42."},{"key":"B20","first-page":"117","article-title":"Effects of metoclopramide on the gastrointestinal tract motility of Hispaniolan parrots (Amazona ventralis)","year":"2002","unstructured":"Bowman MR, Pare JA, Ziegler LE. Effects of metoclopramide on the gastrointestinal tract motility of Hispaniolan parrots (Amazona ventralis). In: Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. American Association of Zoo Veterinarians; 2002;117\u2013118."},{"key":"B21","series-title":"Ratite Management, Medicine, and Surgery","first-page":"155","article-title":"Therapeutics","author":"Tully TN","year":"1996","unstructured":"Tully TN. Therapeutics. In: Tully TN, Shane SM, eds. Ratite Management, Medicine, and Surgery. Krieger Publishing; 1996:155\u2013163."},{"issue":"4","key":"B22","series-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc","first-page":"542","article-title":"Adverse drug reaction to metoclopramide hydrochloride in a macaw with proventricular dilatation syndrome","volume":"203","author":"Massey JG","year":"1993","unstructured":"Massey JG. Adverse drug reaction to metoclopramide hydrochloride in a macaw with proventricular dilatation syndrome. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1993;203(4):542\u2013544. doi:10.2460\/javma.1993.203.04.0542"},{"issue":"1","key":"B23","series-title":"BMC Vet Res","first-page":"244","article-title":"Anti-nausea effects and pharmacokinetics of ondansetron, maropitant and metoclopramide in a low-dose cisplatin model of nausea and vomiting in the dog: a blinded crossover study","volume":"13","author":"Kenward H","year":"2017","unstructured":"Kenward H, Elliott J, Lee T, Pelligand L. Anti-nausea effects and pharmacokinetics of ondansetron, maropitant and metoclopramide in a low-dose cisplatin model of nausea and vomiting in the dog: a blinded crossover study. BMC Vet Res. 2017;13(1):244. doi:10.1186\/s12917-017-1156-7"},{"key":"B24","series-title":"Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract","first-page":"59","article-title":"Psittacine therapeutics","author":"Tully TN","year":"2000","unstructured":"Tully TN Jr. Psittacine therapeutics. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 2000;3:59\u201390. doi:10.1016\/S1094-9194(17)30095-6"},{"issue":"6","key":"B25","series-title":"Lancet Oncol","first-page":"365","article-title":"Methods for decreasing postoperative gut dysmotility","volume":"4","author":"Miedema BW","year":"2003","unstructured":"Miedema BW, Johnson JO. Methods for decreasing postoperative gut dysmotility. Lancet Oncol. 2003;4(6):365\u2013372. doi:10.1016\/S1470-2045(03)01118-5"},{"key":"B26","series-title":"Avian Biol Res","first-page":"161","article-title":"Histological study on the oesophagus and crop in various species of wild bird","author":"Rajabi E","year":"2009","unstructured":"Rajabi E, Nabipour A. Histological study on the oesophagus and crop in various species of wild bird. Avian Biol Res. 2009;2:161\u2013164. doi:10.3184\/175815509X12474789336122"},{"issue":"2","key":"B27","series-title":"Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract","first-page":"413","article-title":"Avian gastroenterology - anatomy and assessment","volume":"28","author":"Hollwarth A","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hollwarth A, Prieto LG. Avian gastroenterology - anatomy and assessment. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 2025;28(2):413\u2013424. doi:10.1016\/j.cvex.2024.11.009"},{"issue":"1","key":"B28","series-title":"J Vet Med Biotechnol Biosafety","first-page":"7","article-title":"Morphological features of the feral pigeon\u2019s (Columba livia f. urbana) digestive system","volume":"10","author":"Kolomak I","year":"2024","unstructured":"Kolomak I. Morphological features of the feral pigeon\u2019s (Columba livia f. urbana) digestive system. J Vet Med Biotechnol Biosafety 2024;10(1):7\u201313."},{"issue":"5","key":"B29","series-title":"Int J Morphol","first-page":"1336","article-title":"The comparative anatomy of the upper digestive system in 26 species of zoophagous-polyphagous palearctic birds","volume":"41","author":"Preja A-I","year":"2023","unstructured":"Preja A-I, Cipou MF, Martonos CO, et al. The comparative anatomy of the upper digestive system in 26 species of zoophagous-polyphagous palearctic birds. Int J Morphol. 2023;41(5):1336\u20131346. doi:10.4067\/S0717-95022023000501336"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Veterinary Research"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/view\/journals\/ajvr\/aop\/ajvr.26.05.0239\/ajvr.26.05.0239.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/ajvr\/aop\/ajvr.26.05.0239\/ajvr.26.05.0239.xml","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T18:21:46Z","timestamp":1787768506000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/view\/journals\/ajvr\/aop\/ajvr.26.05.0239\/ajvr.26.05.0239.xml"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"references-count":29,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2460\/ajvr.26.05.0239","relation":{},"ISSN":["0002-9645","1943-5681"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0002-9645","type":"print"},{"value":"1943-5681","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]}}}