{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,9]],"date-time":"2026-04-09T21:10:44Z","timestamp":1775769044235,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Objective<\/jats:bold>\n                    \u2014To describe the microanatomic features of pancreatic islets and the immunohistochemical distribution of glucose transporter (GLUT) molecules in the pancreas and other tissues of New World camelids.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Animals<\/jats:bold>\n                    \u20147 healthy adult New World camelids, 2 neonatal camelids with developmental skeletal abnormalities, and 2 BALB\/c mice.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Procedure<\/jats:bold>\n                    \u2014Samples of pancreas, liver, skeletal muscle, mammary gland, brain, and adipose tissue were collected postmortem from camelids and mice. Pancreatic tissue sections from camelids were assessed microscopically. Sections of all tissues from camelids and mice (positive control specimens) were examined after staining with antibodies against GLUT-1, -2, -3, and -4 molecules.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Results<\/jats:bold>\n                    \u2014In camelids, pancreatic islets were prominent and lacked connective tissue capsules. Numerous individual endocrine-type cells were visible distant from the islets. Findings in neonatal and adult tissues were similar; however, the former appeared to have more non\u2013islet-associated endocrine cells. Via immunostaining, GLUT-2 molecules were detected on pancreatic endocrine cells and hepatocytes in camelids, GLUT-1 molecules were detected on the capillary endothelium of the CNS, GLUT-3 molecules were detected throughout the gray matter, and GLUT-4 molecules were not detected in any camelid tissues. Staining characteristics of neonatal and adult tissues were similar.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Conclusions and Clinical Relevance<\/jats:bold>\n                    \u2014In New World camelids, microanatomic features of pancreatic islets are similar to those of other mammals. Data suggest that the poor glucose clearance and poor insulin response to hyperglycemia in adult camelids cannot be attributed to a lack of islet cells or lack of GLUT molecules on the outer membrane of those cells.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.67.3.524","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,2,28]],"date-time":"2006-02-28T17:22:05Z","timestamp":1141147325000},"page":"524-528","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Microanatomic features of pancreatic islets and immunolocalization of glucose transporters in tissues of llamas and alpacas"],"prefix":"10.2460","volume":"67","author":[{"given":"Christopher K.","family":"Cebra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert J.","family":"Bildfell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kay A.","family":"Fischer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1272","reference":[{"key":"ref1","series-title":"Biochem J","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1042\/bj2950329","article-title":"The glucose transporter family: structure, function and tissue specific expression","volume":"295","author":"Gould","year":"1993"},{"key":"ref2","series-title":"Acta Cient Venez","first-page":"34","article-title":"Obesity, insulin resistance and skeletal muscle characteristics","volume":"50","author":"Torres","year":"1999"},{"key":"ref3","series-title":"Proceedings of the 1st International Camel Conference.","first-page":"414","article-title":"Glucose regulation in the camel","author":"Dahlborn","year":"1992"},{"key":"ref4","series-title":"Comp Biochem Physiol A Physiol","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-9629(96)00449-5","article-title":"Comparative aspects of glucose tolerance in camels, sheep, and ponies","volume":"118","author":"Elmahdi","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref5","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2001.62.682","article-title":"Glucose tolerance testing in llamas and alpacas","volume":"62","author":"Cebra","year":"2001"},{"key":"ref6","series-title":"Transplant Proc","first-page":"3304","article-title":"Lama glama (the South American camelid, llama): a unique model for evaluation of xenogenic islet transplants in a cerebral spinal fluid driven artificial organ","volume":"27","author":"Ommaya","year":"1995"},{"key":"ref7","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1544","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2001.62.1544","article-title":"Effects of exogenous insulin on glucose tolerance in alpacas","volume":"62","author":"Cebra","year":"2001"},{"key":"ref8","series-title":"Comp Med","first-page":"490","article-title":"Evaluation of insulin resistance in two kinds of South American camelids: llamas and alpacas","volume":"50","author":"Arraya","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref9","series-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2000.217.1701","article-title":"Hyperglycemia, hypernatremia, and hyperosmolarity in 6 neonatal llamas and alpacas","volume":"217","author":"Cebra","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref10","series-title":"Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0720(15)31003-3","article-title":"Clinical pathology of llamas","volume":"5","author":"Garry","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref11","series-title":"40th Annu Meet Am Assoc Vet Lab Diagn","article-title":"Case report: picornavirus infection associated with abortion and adult onset diabetes mellitus in a herd of llamas, in Proceedings","volume":"43","author":"Stehman","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref12","series-title":"Anat Anz","first-page":"181","article-title":"The structure and hormone content of the endocrine pancreas of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius)","volume":"159","author":"Khatim","year":"1985"},{"key":"ref13","series-title":"J Morphol","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4687(199702)231:2<185::AID-JMOR7>3.0.CO;2-D","article-title":"Immunohistochemical identification of pancreatic hormones, neuropeptides and cytoskeletal proteins in pancreas of the camel (Camelus dromedarius)","volume":"231","author":"Adeghate","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref14","series-title":"Endokrinologie","first-page":"128","article-title":"Preparation and purification of 131I-labelled insulin from the pancreas of domestic animals","volume":"53","author":"Abdel-Wahab","year":"1968"},{"key":"ref15","series-title":"Comp Biochem Physiol B","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/0305-0491(89)90226-5","article-title":"Comparative studies on the major features of insulin receptors in mammalian and non-mammalian liver membranes","volume":"93","author":"al-Attas","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref16","series-title":"Int J Biochem","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-711X(88)90322-9","article-title":"Distribution of mam-malian facilitative glucose transporter messenger RNA in bovine tissues","volume":"25","author":"Zhao","year":"1993"},{"key":"ref17","series-title":"Statistical methods","volume":"144","author":"Snedecor","year":"1980"},{"key":"ref18","series-title":"Medicine and surgery of South American camelids","first-page":"327","article-title":"Digestive system","author":"Fowler","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref19","series-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2000.217.241","article-title":"Pancreatic necrosis in New World camelids: 11 cases (1990\u20131998)","volume":"217","author":"Pearson","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref20","series-title":"Vet Rec","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.142.23.644","article-title":"Pancreatic necrosis in a llama","volume":"142","author":"Hamir","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref21","series-title":"The endocrine pancreas","first-page":"9","article-title":"Embryology and anatomical organization of the vertebrate pancreas","author":"Hazelwood","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref22","series-title":"Biology of the pancreas in growing animals","first-page":"15","article-title":"Functional structure and growth of the pancreas in postnatal growing animals","author":"Xu","year":"1999"},{"key":"ref23","series-title":"Cell Tissue Res","first-page":"157","article-title":"A dual population of islets of Langerhans in bovine pancreas","volume":"206","author":"Bonner-Weir","year":"1980"},{"key":"ref24","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","first-page":"1577","article-title":"Blood chemical and pancreatic histologic alterations in alloxan-diabetic ewes and their fetuses","volume":"31","author":"Jackson","year":"1970"},{"key":"ref25","series-title":"Nat Genet","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1197-327","article-title":"Early diabetes and abnormal postnatal pancreatic islet development in mice lacking Glut-2","volume":"17","author":"Guillam","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref26","series-title":"Nat Med","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1038\/78693","article-title":"Targeted disruption of the glucose transporter 4 selectively in muscle causes insulin resistance and glucose intolerance","volume":"6","author":"Zisman","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref27","series-title":"J Histochem Cytochem","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1177\/002215540104900811","article-title":"Evidence for three fast myosin heavy chain isoforms in type II skeletal muscle fibers in the adult llama (Lama glama)","volume":"49","author":"Graziotti","year":"2001"},{"key":"ref28","series-title":"Am J Physiol","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"C1723","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.1994.267.6.C1723","article-title":"Type IIx myosin heavy chain transcripts are expressed in type IIb fibers of human skeletal muscle","volume":"267","author":"Smerdu","year":"1994"},{"key":"ref29","series-title":"J Exp Zool","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-010X(19960815)275:6<413::AID-JEZ3>3.0.CO;2-R","article-title":"Myosin heavy chain composition of adult feline (Felis catus) limb and diaphragm muscles","volume":"275","author":"Talmadge","year":"1996"},{"key":"ref30","series-title":"Mamm Genome","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1007\/s003359900924","article-title":"Sequencing of the 2a, 2x, and slow isoforms of the bovine myosin heavy chain and the different expression among muscles","volume":"9","author":"Tanabe","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref1","series-title":"Biochem J","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1042\/bj2950329","article-title":"The glucose transporter family: structure, function and tissue specific expression","volume":"295","author":"Gould","year":"1993"},{"key":"ref2","series-title":"Acta Cient Venez","first-page":"34","article-title":"Obesity, insulin resistance and skeletal muscle characteristics","volume":"50","author":"Torres","year":"1999"},{"key":"ref3","series-title":"Proceedings of the 1st International Camel Conference.","first-page":"414","article-title":"Glucose regulation in the camel","author":"Dahlborn","year":"1992"},{"key":"ref4","series-title":"Comp Biochem Physiol A Physiol","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/S0300-9629(96)00449-5","article-title":"Comparative aspects of glucose tolerance in camels, sheep, and ponies","volume":"118","author":"Elmahdi","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref5","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2001.62.682","article-title":"Glucose tolerance testing in llamas and alpacas","volume":"62","author":"Cebra","year":"2001"},{"key":"ref6","series-title":"Transplant Proc","first-page":"3304","article-title":"Lama glama (the South American camelid, llama): a unique model for evaluation of xenogenic islet transplants in a cerebral spinal fluid driven artificial organ","volume":"27","author":"Ommaya","year":"1995"},{"key":"ref7","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1544","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2001.62.1544","article-title":"Effects of exogenous insulin on glucose tolerance in alpacas","volume":"62","author":"Cebra","year":"2001"},{"key":"ref8","series-title":"Comp Med","first-page":"490","article-title":"Evaluation of insulin resistance in two kinds of South American camelids: llamas and alpacas","volume":"50","author":"Arraya","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref9","series-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1701","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2000.217.1701","article-title":"Hyperglycemia, hypernatremia, and hyperosmolarity in 6 neonatal llamas and alpacas","volume":"217","author":"Cebra","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref10","series-title":"Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0720(15)31003-3","article-title":"Clinical pathology of llamas","volume":"5","author":"Garry","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref11","series-title":"40th Annu Meet Am Assoc Vet Lab Diagn","article-title":"Case report: picornavirus infection associated with abortion and adult onset diabetes mellitus in a herd of llamas, in Proceedings","volume":"43","author":"Stehman","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref12","series-title":"Anat Anz","first-page":"181","article-title":"The structure and hormone content of the endocrine pancreas of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedarius)","volume":"159","author":"Khatim","year":"1985"},{"key":"ref13","series-title":"J Morphol","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4687(199702)231:2<185::AID-JMOR7>3.0.CO;2-D","article-title":"Immunohistochemical identification of pancreatic hormones, neuropeptides and cytoskeletal proteins in pancreas of the camel (Camelus dromedarius)","volume":"231","author":"Adeghate","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref14","series-title":"Endokrinologie","first-page":"128","article-title":"Preparation and purification of 131I-labelled insulin from the pancreas of domestic animals","volume":"53","author":"Abdel-Wahab","year":"1968"},{"key":"ref15","series-title":"Comp Biochem Physiol B","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/0305-0491(89)90226-5","article-title":"Comparative studies on the major features of insulin receptors in mammalian and non-mammalian liver membranes","volume":"93","author":"al-Attas","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref16","series-title":"Int J Biochem","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-711X(88)90322-9","article-title":"Distribution of mam-malian facilitative glucose transporter messenger RNA in bovine tissues","volume":"25","author":"Zhao","year":"1993"},{"key":"ref17","series-title":"Statistical methods","volume":"144","author":"Snedecor","year":"1980"},{"key":"ref18","series-title":"Medicine and surgery of South American camelids","first-page":"327","article-title":"Digestive system","author":"Fowler","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref19","series-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.2000.217.241","article-title":"Pancreatic necrosis in New World camelids: 11 cases (1990\u20131998)","volume":"217","author":"Pearson","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref20","series-title":"Vet Rec","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.142.23.644","article-title":"Pancreatic necrosis in a llama","volume":"142","author":"Hamir","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref21","series-title":"The endocrine pancreas","first-page":"9","article-title":"Embryology and anatomical organization of the vertebrate pancreas","author":"Hazelwood","year":"1989"},{"key":"ref22","series-title":"Biology of the pancreas in growing animals","first-page":"15","article-title":"Functional structure and growth of the pancreas in postnatal growing animals","author":"Xu","year":"1999"},{"key":"ref23","series-title":"Cell Tissue Res","first-page":"157","article-title":"A dual population of islets of Langerhans in bovine pancreas","volume":"206","author":"Bonner-Weir","year":"1980"},{"key":"ref24","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","first-page":"1577","article-title":"Blood chemical and pancreatic histologic alterations in alloxan-diabetic ewes and their fetuses","volume":"31","author":"Jackson","year":"1970"},{"key":"ref25","series-title":"Nat Genet","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1197-327","article-title":"Early diabetes and abnormal postnatal pancreatic islet development in mice lacking Glut-2","volume":"17","author":"Guillam","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref26","series-title":"Nat Med","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"924","DOI":"10.1038\/78693","article-title":"Targeted disruption of the glucose transporter 4 selectively in muscle causes insulin resistance and glucose intolerance","volume":"6","author":"Zisman","year":"2000"},{"key":"ref27","series-title":"J Histochem Cytochem","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1033","DOI":"10.1177\/002215540104900811","article-title":"Evidence for three fast myosin heavy chain isoforms in type II skeletal muscle fibers in the adult llama (Lama glama)","volume":"49","author":"Graziotti","year":"2001"},{"key":"ref28","series-title":"Am J Physiol","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"C1723","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.1994.267.6.C1723","article-title":"Type IIx myosin heavy chain transcripts are expressed in type IIb fibers of human skeletal muscle","volume":"267","author":"Smerdu","year":"1994"},{"key":"ref29","series-title":"J Exp Zool","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-010X(19960815)275:6<413::AID-JEZ3>3.0.CO;2-R","article-title":"Myosin heavy chain composition of adult feline (Felis catus) limb and diaphragm muscles","volume":"275","author":"Talmadge","year":"1996"},{"key":"ref30","series-title":"Mamm Genome","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1007\/s003359900924","article-title":"Sequencing of the 2a, 2x, and slow isoforms of the bovine myosin heavy chain and the different expression among muscles","volume":"9","author":"Tanabe","year":"1998"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Veterinary 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