{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T00:03:11Z","timestamp":1789516991318,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)","issue":"7","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["ajvr"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p><jats:bold>Objective<\/jats:bold>\u2014To assess the refractive state of eyes in various breeds of dogs to identify breeds susceptible to ametropias.<\/jats:p>\n<jats:p><jats:bold>Animals<\/jats:bold>\u20141,440 dogs representing 90 breeds.<\/jats:p>\n<jats:p><jats:bold>Procedures<\/jats:bold>\u2014In each dog, 1 drop of 1% cyclopentolate or 1% tropicamide was applied to each eye, and a Canine Eye Registration Foundation examination was performed. Approximately 30 minutes after drops were administered, the refractive state of each eye was assessed via streak retinoscopy. Dogs were considered ametropic (myopic or hyperopic) when the mean refractive state (the resting focus of the eye at rest relative to visual infinity) exceeded \u00b1 0.5 diopter (D). Anisometropia was diagnosed when the refractive error of each eye in a pair differed by &gt; 1 D.<\/jats:p>\n<jats:p><jats:bold>Results<\/jats:bold>\u2014Mean \u00b1 SD refractive state of all eyes examined was \u22120.05 \u00b1 1.36 D (emmetropia). Breeds in which the mean refractive state was myopic (\u2264 \u22120.5 D) included Rottweiler, Collie, Miniature Schnauzer, and Toy Poodle. Degree of myopia increased with increasing age across all breeds. Breeds in which the mean refractive state was hyperopic (\u2265 +0.5 D) included Australian Shepherd, Alaskan Malamute, and Bouvier des Flandres. Astigmatism was detected in 1% (14\/1,440) of adult (\u2265 1 year of age) dogs; prevalence of astigmatism among German Shepherd Dogs was 3.3% (3\/90). Anisometropia was detected in 6% (87\/1,440) of all dogs and in 8.9% (8\/90) of German Shepherd Dogs.<\/jats:p>\n<jats:p><jats:bold>Conclusions and Clinical Relevance<\/jats:bold>\u2014Refractive states of canine eyes varied widely and were influenced by breed and age. In dogs expected to have high visual function (eg, performance dogs), determination of refractive state is recommended prior to intensive training.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.69.7.946","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,7,1]],"date-time":"2008-07-01T13:34:11Z","timestamp":1214919251000},"page":"946-951","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Refractive states of eyes and association between ametropia and breed in dogs"],"prefix":"10.2460","volume":"69","author":[{"given":"Melissa A.","family":"Kubai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ellison","family":"Bentley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul E.","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Donald O.","family":"Mutti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher J.","family":"Murphy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1272","reference":[{"key":"ref1","series-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci","first-page":"120","article-title":"Optical and structural development of the crystalline lens in childhood","volume":"39","author":"Mutti","year":"1998"},{"key":"ref2","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","first-page":"414","article-title":"Effect of optical defocus on visual acuity in dogs","volume":"58","author":"Murphy","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref3","series-title":"J Refract Surg","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.3928\/1081-597X-19970501-08","article-title":"Prevalence of myopia in adults: implications for refractive surgeons","volume":"13","author":"McCarty","year":"1997"},{"key":"ref4","article-title":"Refractive status and motility defects of persons 4\u201374 years, United States, 1971\u20131972. 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