{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T18:41:49Z","timestamp":1791398509489,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["javma"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"abstract":"Abstract<\/jats:title>\n \n Background<\/jats:title>\n Canine enteric coronavirus (CECoV) causes diarrhea and vomiting, often leading to outbreaks in kennels and shelters. The World Small Animal Veterinary Association does not recommend vaccination due to limited evidence of efficacy. This meta-analysis assesses CECoV vaccine immunogenicity and protective efficacy against diarrhea and viral shedding.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n \n PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched for experimental or observational studies of dogs vaccinated against CECoV, published from inception to September 29, 2025. Included studies confirmed dogs were free of CECoV infection and neutralizing antibodies before study. Exclusions applied to noncompliant studies. The Systematic Review Centre for Laboratory Animal Experimentation and funnel plots assessed bias risk. To assess vaccine immunogenicity, ELISA optical density (OD) values and log\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n virus neutralization (VN) titers were regressed; pooled risk ratios evaluated protective efficacy.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n From 415 studies, 5 experimental studies with unclear bias risks were included. Most reported dog age but omitted sex or breed. Inactivated vaccines significantly increased both OD values and VN titers, whereas attenuated vaccines significantly increased OD values but not VN titers. Vaccination reduced diarrhea risk by 72% (risk ratio, \u20131.28; 95% CI, \u20132.05 to \u20130.51), but did not decrease viral shedding (risk ratio, \u20130.25; 95% CI, \u20130.70 to 0.21).<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Clinical Relevance<\/jats:title>\n CECoV vaccines are immunogenic and reduce diarrhea, but do not significantly reduce viral shedding, potentially masking infections in clinical settings and thus complicating disease control in communal environments. Limited literature and studies from similar research groups suggest removing CECoV vaccines from guidelines. Standardized reporting is recommended to improve future canine epidemiological research reliability.<\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.25.08.0539","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,5]],"date-time":"2025-12-05T16:29:49Z","timestamp":1764952189000},"page":"464-470","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of canine enteric coronavirus vaccine: a systematic review and meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.2460","volume":"264","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4215-4513","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Char","family":"Leung","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Leicester Medical School, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK"},{"name":"Department of Population Health Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anisha","family":"Syeda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Zdanowicz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1272","reference":[{"issue":"78","key":"ref1","series-title":"Proc Annu Meet U S Anim Health Assoc","first-page":"359","article-title":"Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea","author":"Binn LN","year":"1974","unstructured":"Binn LN, Lazar EC, Keenan KP, Huxsoll DL, Marchwicki RH, Strano AJ. Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea. Proc Annu Meet U S Anim Health Assoc. 1974;(78):359-366."},{"issue":"2","key":"ref2","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"517","article-title":"Outbreak of severe vomiting in dogs associated with a canine enteric coronavirus, United Kingdom","volume":"27","author":"Radford AD","year":"2021","unstructured":"Radford AD, Singleton DA, Jewell C, Outbreak of severe vomiting in dogs associated with a canine enteric coronavirus, United Kingdom. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021;27(2):517-528. doi:10.3201\/eid2702.202452"},{"issue":"6","key":"ref3","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"1240","article-title":"Emerging variants of canine enteric coronavirus associated with outbreaks of gastroenteric disease","volume":"30","author":"Cunningham-Oakes E","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cunningham-Oakes E, Pilgrim J, Darby AC, Emerging variants of canine enteric coronavirus associated with outbreaks of gastroenteric disease. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024;30(6):1240-1244. doi:10.3201\/eid3006.231184"},{"issue":"7","key":"ref4","series-title":"Infect Genet Evol","first-page":"1419","article-title":"Cross sectional and longitudinal surveys of canine enteric coronavirus infection in kennelled dogs: a molecular marker for biosecurity","volume":"12","author":"Stavisky J","year":"2012","unstructured":"Stavisky J, Pinchbeck G, Gaskell RM, Dawson S, German AJ, Radford AD. Cross sectional and longitudinal surveys of canine enteric coronavirus infection in kennelled dogs: a molecular marker for biosecurity. Infect Genet Evol. 2012;12(7):1419-1426. doi:10.1016\/j.meegid.2012.04.010"},{"key":"ref5","series-title":"Res Vet Sci","first-page":"105289","article-title":"Epidemiological investigation of enteric canine coronaviruses in domestic dogs: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"174","author":"Odigie AE","year":"2024","unstructured":"Odigie AE, Capozza P, Tempesta M, Decaro N, Pratelli A. Epidemiological investigation of enteric canine coronaviruses in domestic dogs: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Vet Sci. 2024;174:105289. doi:10.1016\/j.rvsc.2024.105289"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref6","series-title":"J Small Anim Pract","first-page":"277","article-title":"2024 guidelines for the vaccination of dogs and cats - compiled by the Vaccination Guidelines Group (VGG) of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA)","volume":"65","author":"Squires RA","year":"2024","unstructured":"Squires RA, Crawford C, Marcondes M, Whitley N. 2024 guidelines for the vaccination of dogs and cats - compiled by the Vaccination Guidelines Group (VGG) of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA). J Small Anim Pract. 2024;65(5):277-316. doi:10.1111\/jsap.13718"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref7","series-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol","first-page":"43","article-title":"SYRCLE\u2019s risk of bias tool for animal studies","volume":"14","author":"Hooijmans CR","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hooijmans CR, Rovers MM, de Vries RB, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M, Langendam MW. SYRCLE\u2019s risk of bias tool for animal studies. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2014;14(1):43. doi:10.1186\/1471-2288-14-43"},{"key":"ref8","author":"WebPlotDigitizer 4.8. automeris.io","unstructured":"WebPlotDigitizer 4.8. automeris.io. Updated 2024. Accessed March 15, 2025. https:\/\/apps.automeris.io\/wpd4\/"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref9","series-title":"Biometrics","first-page":"455","article-title":"Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis","volume":"56","author":"Duval S","year":"2000","unstructured":"Duval S, Tweedie R. Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics. 2000;56(2):455-463. doi:10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x"},{"key":"ref10","series-title":"metafor: Meta-Analysis Package for R","unstructured":"metafor: Meta-Analysis Package for R. Version 4.8-0. Accessed November 8, 2025. https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/metafor\/index.html"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref11","series-title":"Clin Diagn Lab Immunol","first-page":"102","article-title":"Fecal immunoglobulin A antibodies in dogs infected or vaccinated with canine coronavirus","volume":"11","author":"Decaro N","year":"2004","unstructured":"Decaro N, Pratelli A, Tinelli A, Fecal immunoglobulin A antibodies in dogs infected or vaccinated with canine coronavirus. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2004;11(1):102-105. doi:10.1128\/CDLI.11.1.102-105.2004"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref12","series-title":"Vaccine","first-page":"724","article-title":"Immunity after natural exposure to enteric canine coronavirus does not provide complete protection against infection with the new pantropic CB\/05 strain","volume":"28","author":"Decaro N","year":"2010","unstructured":"Decaro N, Elia G, Martella V, Immunity after natural exposure to enteric canine coronavirus does not provide complete protection against infection with the new pantropic CB\/05 strain. Vaccine. 2010;28(3):724-729. doi:10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.10.077"},{"key":"ref13","series-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol","first-page":"229","article-title":"Efficacy of an inactivated vaccine against clinical disease caused by canine coronavirus","volume":"380","author":"Fulker R","year":"1995","unstructured":"Fulker R, Wasmoen T, Atchison R, Chu HJ, Acree W. Efficacy of an inactivated vaccine against clinical disease caused by canine coronavirus. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1995;380:229-234. doi:10.1007\/978-1-4615-1899-0_37"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref14","series-title":"New Microbiol","first-page":"151","article-title":"Efficacy of an inactivated canine coronavirus vaccine in pups","volume":"26","author":"Pratelli A","year":"2003","unstructured":"Pratelli A, Tinelli A, Decaro N, Efficacy of an inactivated canine coronavirus vaccine in pups. New Microbiol. 2003;26(2):151-155."},{"issue":"1","key":"ref15","series-title":"Vet Microbiol","first-page":"43","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of a modified-live canine coronavirus vaccine in dogs","volume":"99","author":"Pratelli A","year":"2004","unstructured":"Pratelli A, Tinelli A, Decaro N, Safety and efficacy of a modified-live canine coronavirus vaccine in dogs. Vet Microbiol. 2004;99(1):43-49. doi:10.1016\/j.vetmic.2003.07.009"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref16","series-title":"Rev Med Virol","first-page":"e2542","article-title":"Global seroprevalence and prevalence of infection of influenza in dogs (Canis familiaris): a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Leung C","year":"2024","unstructured":"Leung C, King AN, Barker PRA, Alshallal AD, Lee JY, Su L. Global seroprevalence and prevalence of infection of influenza in dogs (Canis familiaris): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev Med Virol. 2024;34(3):e2542. doi:10.1002\/rmv.2542"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref17","series-title":"Vet Res","first-page":"178","article-title":"Intranasal NS1-truncated live attenuated canine influenza vaccine confers superior protection compared to inactivated vaccine in Beagles","volume":"56","author":"Hwang J","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hwang J, Yoon SW, Ga E, Intranasal NS1-truncated live attenuated canine influenza vaccine confers superior protection compared to inactivated vaccine in Beagles. Vet Res. 2025;56(1):178. doi:10.1186\/s13567-025-01624-7"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref18","series-title":"Acta Vet Scand","first-page":"64","article-title":"Efficacy of rabies vaccines in dogs and cats and protection in a mouse model against European bat lyssavirus type 2","volume":"59","author":"Nokireki T","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nokireki T, Jakava-Viljanen M, Virtala AM, Sihvonen L. Efficacy of rabies vaccines in dogs and cats and protection in a mouse model against European bat lyssavirus type 2. Acta Vet Scand. 2017;59(1):64. doi:10.1186\/s13028-017-0332-x"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref19","series-title":"Vaccine","first-page":"2018","article-title":"Immunogenicity and protective efficacy in dogs of an MF59\u2122-adjuvanted vaccine against recombinant canine\/porcine coronavirus","volume":"29","author":"Decaro N","year":"2011","unstructured":"Decaro N, Mari V, Sciarretta R, Immunogenicity and protective efficacy in dogs of an MF59\u2122-adjuvanted vaccine against recombinant canine\/porcine coronavirus. Vaccine. 2011;29(11):2018-2023. doi:10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.01.028"},{"issue":"78","key":"ref1","series-title":"Proc Annu Meet U S Anim Health Assoc","first-page":"359","article-title":"Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea","author":"Binn LN","year":"1974","unstructured":"Binn LN, Lazar EC, Keenan KP, Huxsoll DL, Marchwicki RH, Strano AJ. Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea. Proc Annu Meet U S Anim Health Assoc. 1974;(78):359-366."},{"issue":"2","key":"ref2","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"517","article-title":"Outbreak of severe vomiting in dogs associated with a canine enteric coronavirus, United Kingdom","volume":"27","author":"Radford AD","year":"2021","unstructured":"Radford AD, Singleton DA, Jewell C, Outbreak of severe vomiting in dogs associated with a canine enteric coronavirus, United Kingdom. Emerg Infect Dis. 2021;27(2):517-528. doi:10.3201\/eid2702.202452"},{"issue":"6","key":"ref3","series-title":"Emerg Infect Dis","first-page":"1240","article-title":"Emerging variants of canine enteric coronavirus associated with outbreaks of gastroenteric disease","volume":"30","author":"Cunningham-Oakes E","year":"2024","unstructured":"Cunningham-Oakes E, Pilgrim J, Darby AC, Emerging variants of canine enteric coronavirus associated with outbreaks of gastroenteric disease. Emerg Infect Dis. 2024;30(6):1240-1244. doi:10.3201\/eid3006.231184"},{"issue":"7","key":"ref4","series-title":"Infect Genet Evol","first-page":"1419","article-title":"Cross sectional and longitudinal surveys of canine enteric coronavirus infection in kennelled dogs: a molecular marker for biosecurity","volume":"12","author":"Stavisky J","year":"2012","unstructured":"Stavisky J, Pinchbeck G, Gaskell RM, Dawson S, German AJ, Radford AD. Cross sectional and longitudinal surveys of canine enteric coronavirus infection in kennelled dogs: a molecular marker for biosecurity. Infect Genet Evol. 2012;12(7):1419-1426. doi:10.1016\/j.meegid.2012.04.010"},{"key":"ref5","series-title":"Res Vet Sci","first-page":"105289","article-title":"Epidemiological investigation of enteric canine coronaviruses in domestic dogs: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"174","author":"Odigie AE","year":"2024","unstructured":"Odigie AE, Capozza P, Tempesta M, Decaro N, Pratelli A. Epidemiological investigation of enteric canine coronaviruses in domestic dogs: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Res Vet Sci. 2024;174:105289. doi:10.1016\/j.rvsc.2024.105289"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref6","series-title":"J Small Anim Pract","first-page":"277","article-title":"2024 guidelines for the vaccination of dogs and cats - compiled by the Vaccination Guidelines Group (VGG) of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA)","volume":"65","author":"Squires RA","year":"2024","unstructured":"Squires RA, Crawford C, Marcondes M, Whitley N. 2024 guidelines for the vaccination of dogs and cats - compiled by the Vaccination Guidelines Group (VGG) of the World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA). J Small Anim Pract. 2024;65(5):277-316. doi:10.1111\/jsap.13718"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref7","series-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol","first-page":"43","article-title":"SYRCLE\u2019s risk of bias tool for animal studies","volume":"14","author":"Hooijmans CR","year":"2014","unstructured":"Hooijmans CR, Rovers MM, de Vries RB, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M, Langendam MW. SYRCLE\u2019s risk of bias tool for animal studies. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2014;14(1):43. doi:10.1186\/1471-2288-14-43"},{"key":"ref8","author":"WebPlotDigitizer 4.8. automeris.io","unstructured":"WebPlotDigitizer 4.8. automeris.io. Updated 2024. Accessed March 15, 2025. https:\/\/apps.automeris.io\/wpd4\/"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref9","series-title":"Biometrics","first-page":"455","article-title":"Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis","volume":"56","author":"Duval S","year":"2000","unstructured":"Duval S, Tweedie R. Trim and fill: a simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics. 2000;56(2):455-463. doi:10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x"},{"key":"ref10","series-title":"metafor: Meta-Analysis Package for R","unstructured":"metafor: Meta-Analysis Package for R. Version 4.8-0. Accessed November 8, 2025. https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/metafor\/index.html"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref11","series-title":"Clin Diagn Lab Immunol","first-page":"102","article-title":"Fecal immunoglobulin A antibodies in dogs infected or vaccinated with canine coronavirus","volume":"11","author":"Decaro N","year":"2004","unstructured":"Decaro N, Pratelli A, Tinelli A, Fecal immunoglobulin A antibodies in dogs infected or vaccinated with canine coronavirus. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2004;11(1):102-105. doi:10.1128\/CDLI.11.1.102-105.2004"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref12","series-title":"Vaccine","first-page":"724","article-title":"Immunity after natural exposure to enteric canine coronavirus does not provide complete protection against infection with the new pantropic CB\/05 strain","volume":"28","author":"Decaro N","year":"2010","unstructured":"Decaro N, Elia G, Martella V, Immunity after natural exposure to enteric canine coronavirus does not provide complete protection against infection with the new pantropic CB\/05 strain. Vaccine. 2010;28(3):724-729. doi:10.1016\/j.vaccine.2009.10.077"},{"key":"ref13","series-title":"Adv Exp Med Biol","first-page":"229","article-title":"Efficacy of an inactivated vaccine against clinical disease caused by canine coronavirus","volume":"380","author":"Fulker R","year":"1995","unstructured":"Fulker R, Wasmoen T, Atchison R, Chu HJ, Acree W. Efficacy of an inactivated vaccine against clinical disease caused by canine coronavirus. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1995;380:229-234. doi:10.1007\/978-1-4615-1899-0_37"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref14","series-title":"New Microbiol","first-page":"151","article-title":"Efficacy of an inactivated canine coronavirus vaccine in pups","volume":"26","author":"Pratelli A","year":"2003","unstructured":"Pratelli A, Tinelli A, Decaro N, Efficacy of an inactivated canine coronavirus vaccine in pups. New Microbiol. 2003;26(2):151-155."},{"issue":"1","key":"ref15","series-title":"Vet Microbiol","first-page":"43","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of a modified-live canine coronavirus vaccine in dogs","volume":"99","author":"Pratelli A","year":"2004","unstructured":"Pratelli A, Tinelli A, Decaro N, Safety and efficacy of a modified-live canine coronavirus vaccine in dogs. Vet Microbiol. 2004;99(1):43-49. doi:10.1016\/j.vetmic.2003.07.009"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref16","series-title":"Rev Med Virol","first-page":"e2542","article-title":"Global seroprevalence and prevalence of infection of influenza in dogs (Canis familiaris): a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Leung C","year":"2024","unstructured":"Leung C, King AN, Barker PRA, Alshallal AD, Lee JY, Su L. Global seroprevalence and prevalence of infection of influenza in dogs (Canis familiaris): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev Med Virol. 2024;34(3):e2542. doi:10.1002\/rmv.2542"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref17","series-title":"Vet Res","first-page":"178","article-title":"Intranasal NS1-truncated live attenuated canine influenza vaccine confers superior protection compared to inactivated vaccine in Beagles","volume":"56","author":"Hwang J","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hwang J, Yoon SW, Ga E, Intranasal NS1-truncated live attenuated canine influenza vaccine confers superior protection compared to inactivated vaccine in Beagles. Vet Res. 2025;56(1):178. doi:10.1186\/s13567-025-01624-7"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref18","series-title":"Acta Vet Scand","first-page":"64","article-title":"Efficacy of rabies vaccines in dogs and cats and protection in a mouse model against European bat lyssavirus type 2","volume":"59","author":"Nokireki T","year":"2017","unstructured":"Nokireki T, Jakava-Viljanen M, Virtala AM, Sihvonen L. Efficacy of rabies vaccines in dogs and cats and protection in a mouse model against European bat lyssavirus type 2. Acta Vet Scand. 2017;59(1):64. doi:10.1186\/s13028-017-0332-x"},{"issue":"11","key":"ref19","series-title":"Vaccine","first-page":"2018","article-title":"Immunogenicity and protective efficacy in dogs of an MF59\u2122-adjuvanted vaccine against recombinant canine\/porcine coronavirus","volume":"29","author":"Decaro N","year":"2011","unstructured":"Decaro N, Mari V, Sciarretta R, Immunogenicity and protective efficacy in dogs of an MF59\u2122-adjuvanted vaccine against recombinant canine\/porcine coronavirus. Vaccine. 2011;29(11):2018-2023. doi:10.1016\/j.vaccine.2011.01.028"}],"container-title":["Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/view\/journals\/javma\/264\/4\/javma.25.08.0539.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/javma\/264\/4\/javma.25.08.0539.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/javma\/264\/4\/javma.25.08.0539.xml","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T16:32:27Z","timestamp":1773419547000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/view\/journals\/javma\/264\/4\/javma.25.08.0539.xml"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2460\/javma.25.08.0539","relation":{},"ISSN":["0003-1488"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0003-1488","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]}}}