{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T17:16:31Z","timestamp":1773422191530,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775001600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["javma"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To describe exposure characteristics and clinical signs of companion animals following incidental exposure to kratom.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Cases were identified from the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Animal Poison Control Center electronic database between February 2014 and December 2024. Geographic, exposure details and clinical variables were collected.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>From 2014 to 2024, there were 139 animals (128 dogs, 9 cats, 1 pig, and 1 rabbit) that had incidental exposure to kratom. Oral ingestion was the primary route of exposure. Doses when available ranged from 1.2 mg\/kg to 4,775 mg\/kg (median 203.5 mg\/kg). The most common clinical signs seen in dogs were lethargy\/weakness\/sedation, followed by vocalization and hypersalivation\/lip licking. In cats, lethargy, mydriasis, and vocalization were the most reported clinical signs. The outcomes were unknown for most animals.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Incidental kratom exposure in companion animals may occur predominantly through ingestion with clinical signs in dogs consisting of lethargy, vocalization, and hypersalivation, while in cats, lethargy, mydriasis, and vocalization are most common. Because most cases had unknown outcomes, the long-term prognosis is unclear.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Clinical Relevance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Veterinarians should consider kratom exposure in the differential for nonspecific lethargy, vocalization, or nausea, especially in states where kratom is legal.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.25.09.0602","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,29]],"date-time":"2025-12-29T16:17:02Z","timestamp":1767025022000},"page":"1-5","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Characterization of incidental kratom exposure in companion animals"],"prefix":"10.2460","volume":"264","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8201-040X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Elizabeth A.","family":"Maxwell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL"},{"name":"Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roman A.","family":"Mirra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Jeffers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center, Champaign, IL"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1272","reference":[{"key":"ref1","series-title":"Food Chem Toxicol","first-page":"114913","article-title":"Beneficial and adverse health effects of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): a critical review of the literature","volume":"192","author":"Heywood J","year":"2024","unstructured":"Heywood J, Smallets S, Paustenbach D. Beneficial and adverse health effects of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): a critical review of the literature. Food Chem Toxicol. 2024;192:114913. doi:10.1016\/j.fct.2024.114913"},{"issue":"6","key":"ref2","series-title":"Dis Mon","first-page":"101442","article-title":"Kratom: History, pharmacology, current user trends, adverse health effects and potential benefits","volume":"69","author":"Grundmann O","year":"2023","unstructured":"Grundmann O, Hendrickson RG, Greenberg MI. Kratom: History, pharmacology, current user trends, adverse health effects and potential benefits. Dis Mon. 2023;69(6):101442. doi:10.1016\/j.disamonth.2022.101442"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref3","series-title":"Bull Narc","first-page":"21","article-title":"A study of kratom eaters in Thailand","volume":"27","author":"Suwanlert S","year":"1975","unstructured":"Suwanlert S. A study of kratom eaters in Thailand. Bull Narc. 1975;27(3):21-27."},{"issue":"21","key":"ref4","series-title":"J Am Chem Soc","first-page":"6754","article-title":"Synthetic and receptor signaling explorations of the mitragyna alkaloids: mitragynine as an atypical molecular framework for opioid receptor modulators","volume":"138","author":"Kruegel AC","year":"2016","unstructured":"Kruegel AC, Gassaway MM, Kapoor A,  Synthetic and receptor signaling explorations of the mitragyna alkaloids: mitragynine as an atypical molecular framework for opioid receptor modulators. J Am Chem Soc. 2016;138(21):6754-6764. doi:10.1021\/jacs.6b00360"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref5","series-title":"Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther","first-page":"145","article-title":"Some observations on the pharmacology of mitragynine","volume":"198","author":"Macko E","year":"1972","unstructured":"Macko E, Weisbach JA, Douglas B. Some observations on the pharmacology of mitragynine. 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Planta Med. 2020;86(17):1278-1285. doi:10.1055\/a-1212-5475"},{"key":"ref23","series-title":"Am J Vet Res","first-page":"1","article-title":"Fasting improves oral bioavailability of mitragynine in healthy female Beagles","author":"Ortiz A","year":"2025","unstructured":"Ortiz A, Maxwell EA, Kuntz M,  Fasting improves oral bioavailability of mitragynine in healthy female Beagles. Am J Vet Res. Published online October 15, 2025:1\u20136. doi:10.2460\/ajvr.25.07.0235"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref24","series-title":"J Natural","first-page":"16","article-title":"Total phenolic and flavonoids content, and antioxidant activity of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) leaf ethanol extract","volume":"24","author":"Masriani M","year":"2024","unstructured":"Masriani M, Melania P, Muharini R, Alimuddin AH, Sartika RP. Total phenolic and flavonoids content, and antioxidant activity of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) leaf ethanol extract. 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Bull Narc. 1975;27(3):21-27."},{"issue":"21","key":"ref4","series-title":"J Am Chem Soc","first-page":"6754","article-title":"Synthetic and receptor signaling explorations of the mitragyna alkaloids: mitragynine as an atypical molecular framework for opioid receptor modulators","volume":"138","author":"Kruegel AC","year":"2016","unstructured":"Kruegel AC, Gassaway MM, Kapoor A,  Synthetic and receptor signaling explorations of the mitragyna alkaloids: mitragynine as an atypical molecular framework for opioid receptor modulators. J Am Chem Soc. 2016;138(21):6754-6764. doi:10.1021\/jacs.6b00360"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref5","series-title":"Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther","first-page":"145","article-title":"Some observations on the pharmacology of mitragynine","volume":"198","author":"Macko E","year":"1972","unstructured":"Macko E, Weisbach JA, Douglas B. Some observations on the pharmacology of mitragynine. 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