{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T18:05:18Z","timestamp":1784570718574,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)","issue":"8","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["javma"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of quantitative PCR (qPCR) in detecting\n                      <jats:italic>Tritrichomonas foetus<\/jats:italic>\n                      from 3 sample types\u2014vaginal douche, cervicovaginal mucus, and low-volume uterine lavage\u2014in na\u00efve heifers exposed to a naturally infected bull.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      11 na\u00efve heifers were exposed for 30 days to a bull naturally infected with\n                      <jats:italic>T foetus<\/jats:italic>\n                      . Three sampling locations were used to collect diagnostic-material vaginal douche, cervical mucus aspirate, and low-volume uterine lavage and submitted for qPCR. Three sampling time periods were performed 21 days apart.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>12 out of the 82 samples (14.6%) were positive on qPCR. Positive samples were acquired from 2 of 11 heifers. Time significantly impacted the sample positivity results, while location did not.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The small design of the study could not detect a difference between sampling locations. Two animals that tested positive were negative by day 51, suggesting that testing should occur prior to this day.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Clinical Relevance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Recommendations for diagnostic sampling in the female for\n                      <jats:italic>T foetus<\/jats:italic>\n                      are scarce. Sampling from the vagina using a vaginal douche is subjectively easier and results in positive samples. Sampling from the vagina avoids having to traverse the cervix for sample collection, which can be challenging.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.25.10.0707","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T20:55:28Z","timestamp":1779310528000},"page":"1030-1035","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparing vaginal douche, cervicovaginal mucus, and uterine lavage for diagnosis of Tritrichomonas foetus in naive heifers exposed to a naturally infected bull"],"prefix":"10.2460","volume":"264","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5874-4639","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Dane W.","family":"Schwartz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0096-5040","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jennifer","family":"Koziol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, Texas Tech University, Amarillo, TX"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4405-5313","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alexis C.","family":"Thompson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Texas A&M Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, Canyon, TX"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4843-6498","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jessica L.","family":"Klabnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-8492-4149","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jessica","family":"Rush","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-1435-0648","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Chance","family":"Armstrong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1272","reference":[{"key":"ref1","series-title":"Front Vet Sci","first-page":"692199","article-title":"Bovine trichomonosis cases in the United States 2015-2019","volume":"8","author":"Martin KA","year":"2021","unstructured":"Martin KA, Henderson J, Brewer MT. Bovine trichomonosis cases in the United States 2015-2019. Front Vet Sci. 2021;8:692199. doi:10.3389\/fvets.2021.692199"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref2","series-title":"Aust Vet J","first-page":"201","article-title":"Prevalence of Tritrichomonas foetus in beef bulls slaughtered at two abattoirs in northern Australia","volume":"100","author":"Irons PC","year":"2022","unstructured":"Irons PC, McGowan M, de Assis PM,  Prevalence of Tritrichomonas foetus in beef bulls slaughtered at two abattoirs in northern Australia. Aust Vet J. 2022;100(5):201-204. doi:10.1111\/avj.13149"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref3","series-title":"Vet Parasitol","first-page":"7","article-title":"Persistence of Tritrichomonas foetus in naturally infected cows and heifers in Argentina","volume":"59","author":"Mancebo OA","year":"1995","unstructured":"Mancebo OA, Russo AM, Carabajal LL, Monzon CM. Persistence of Tritrichomonas foetus in naturally infected cows and heifers in Argentina. Vet Parasitol. 1995;59(1):7-11. doi:10.1016\/0304-4017(94)00734-T"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref4","series-title":"Large Anim Vet","first-page":"18","article-title":"Bovine trichomoniasis. Better diagnostics and control could save beef industry $650 million annually","volume":"46","author":"Speer CA","year":"1991","unstructured":"Speer CA, White MW. Bovine trichomoniasis. Better diagnostics and control could save beef industry $650 million annually. Large Anim Vet. 1991;46 (1):18\u201320."},{"key":"ref5","article-title":"USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service","author":"United States cattle inventory report","year":"2025","unstructured":"United States cattle inventory report. USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service. July 25, 2025. Accessed September 3, 2025. https:\/\/www.nass.usda.gov\/Publications\/Calendar\/reports_by_date.php?month=07&year=2025"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref6","series-title":"J Agric Appl Econ","first-page":"292","article-title":"Economic impacts of reducing bovine trichomoniasis prevalence in the US beef industry","volume":"57","author":"Samper BA","year":"2025","unstructured":"Samper BA, Koziol J, Williams RB. Economic impacts of reducing bovine trichomoniasis prevalence in the US beef industry. J Agric Appl Econ. 2025;57(2):292-302. doi:10.1017\/aae.2025.7"},{"issue":"6","key":"ref7","series-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc","first-page":"885","article-title":"Induced Tritrichomonas foetus infection in beef heifers","volume":"196","author":"Skirrow SZ","year":"1990","unstructured":"Skirrow SZ, BonDurant RH. Induced Tritrichomonas foetus infection in beef heifers. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1990;196(6):885-889. doi:10.2460\/javma.1990.196.06.885"},{"issue":"2","key":"ref8","series-title":"Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract","first-page":"345","article-title":"Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management of trichomoniasis in cattle","volume":"13","author":"BonDurant RH","year":"1997","unstructured":"BonDurant RH. Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management of trichomoniasis in cattle. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 1997;13(2):345-361. doi:10.1016\/S0749-0720(15)30346-7"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref9","series-title":"Clin Theriogenology","first-page":"225","article-title":"Managing bovine trichomoniasis in the female","volume":"5","author":"Edmondson MA","year":"2013","unstructured":"Edmondson MA. Managing bovine trichomoniasis in the female. Clin Theriogenology. 2013;5(3):225-230."},{"issue":"3","key":"ref10","series-title":"Aust Vet J","first-page":"71","article-title":"The effect of Tritrichomonas foetus infection on calving rates in beef cattle","volume":"60","author":"Clark BL","year":"1983","unstructured":"Clark BL, Dufty JH, Parsonson IM. The effect of Tritrichomonas foetus infection on calving rates in beef cattle. Aust Vet J. 1983;60(3):71-74. doi:10.1111\/j.1751-0813.1983.tb05873.x"},{"key":"ref11","article-title":"Economic implications of trichomoniasis in New Mexico","author":"Wenzel J","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wenzel J, Clifford C, Hawkes J. Economic implications of trichomoniasis in New Mexico. 2020. Accessed March 26, 2026. https:\/\/beefrepro.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/Wenzel-Economic-Impacts-of-Trich.pdf"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref12","series-title":"Vet Res","first-page":"129","article-title":"Control and eradication of bovine trichomonosis in Wyoming, USA by testing and culling positive bulls","volume":"52","author":"Yao C","year":"2021","unstructured":"Yao C. Control and eradication of bovine trichomonosis in Wyoming, USA by testing and culling positive bulls. Vet Res. 2021;52(1):129. doi:10.1186\/s13567-021-00996-w"},{"issue":"pt 1","key":"ref13","series-title":"J Med Microbiol","first-page":"1","article-title":"Diagnosis of Tritrichomonas foetus-infected bulls, an ultimate approach to eradicate bovine trichomoniasis in US cattle?","volume":"62","author":"Yao C","year":"2013","unstructured":"Yao C. Diagnosis of Tritrichomonas foetus-infected bulls, an ultimate approach to eradicate bovine trichomoniasis in US cattle? J Med Microbiol. 2013;62(pt 1):1-9. doi:10.1099\/jmm.0.047365-0"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref14","series-title":"J Vet Diagn Invest","first-page":"603","article-title":"Improvements in Tritrichomonas foetus molecular testing","volume":"30","author":"Ginter Summarell CC","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ginter Summarell CC, Hairgrove TB, Schroeder ME, Conley R, Bounpheng MA. Improvements in Tritrichomonas foetus molecular testing. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2018;30(4):603-608. doi:10.1177\/1040638718767943"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref15","series-title":"J Parasitol","first-page":"594","article-title":"Immune and inflammatory responses to reproductive tract infection with Tritrichomonas foetus in immunized and control heifers","volume":"82","author":"Anderson ML","year":"1996","unstructured":"Anderson ML, BonDurant RH, Corbeil RR, Corbeil LB. Immune and inflammatory responses to reproductive tract infection with Tritrichomonas foetus in immunized and control heifers. J Parasitol. 1996;82(4):594-600. doi:10.2307\/3283783"},{"key":"ref16","series-title":"Front Vet Sci","first-page":"1005556","article-title":"A new inactivated Tritrichomonas foetus vaccine that improves genital clearance of the infection and calving intervals in cattle","volume":"9","author":"Ortega-Mora LM","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ortega-Mora LM, S\u00e1nchez-S\u00e1nchez R, Rojo-Montejo S,  A new inactivated Tritrichomonas foetus vaccine that improves genital clearance of the infection and calving intervals in cattle. Front Vet Sci. 2022;9:1005556. doi:10.3389\/fvets.2022.1005556"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref17","series-title":"Am J Reprod Immunol","first-page":"189","article-title":"Female reproductive tract immunity in bovine trichomoniasis","volume":"39","author":"Corbeil LB","year":"1998","unstructured":"Corbeil LB, Anderson ML, Corbeil RR, Eddow JM, BonDurant RH. Female reproductive tract immunity in bovine trichomoniasis. Am J Reprod Immunol. 1998;39(3):189-198. doi:10.1111\/j.1600-0897.1998.tb00353.x"},{"issue":"8","key":"ref18","series-title":"Vet Bull","first-page":"591","article-title":"Bovine trichomoniasis","volume":"58","author":"Skirrow SZ","year":"1988","unstructured":"Skirrow SZ, BonDurant RH. Bovine trichomoniasis. Vet Bull. 1988;58(8):591-603."},{"issue":"3","key":"ref19","series-title":"Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract","first-page":"595","article-title":"Tritrichomonas foetus","volume":"22","author":"Rae DO","year":"2006","unstructured":"Rae DO, Crews JE. Tritrichomonas foetus. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2006;22(3):595-611. doi:10.1016\/j.cvfa.2006.07.001"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref20","series-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc","first-page":"553","article-title":"Identification of trichomonad-carrier cows","volume":"191","author":"Skirrow S","year":"1987","unstructured":"Skirrow S. Identification of trichomonad-carrier cows. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1987;191(5):553-554. doi:10.2460\/javma.1987.191.05.553"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref21","series-title":"Theriogenology","first-page":"267","article-title":"Diagnosis of trichomoniasis in pregnant cows by culture of cervical-vaginal mucus","volume":"9","author":"Abbitt B","year":"1978","unstructured":"Abbitt B, Ball L. Diagnosis of trichomoniasis in pregnant cows by culture of cervical-vaginal mucus. Theriogenology. 1978;9(3):267-270. doi:10.1016\/0093-691X(78)90034-1"},{"key":"ref22","series-title":"Society for Theriogenology Manual for Breeding Soundness Examination of Bulls","author":"Koziol JH","year":"2018","unstructured":"Koziol JH, Armstrong CL. Society for Theriogenology Manual for Breeding Soundness Examination of Bulls. 2nd ed. Society for Theriogenology; 2018."},{"issue":"3","key":"ref23","series-title":"Biochem Med (Zagreb)","first-page":"276","article-title":"Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic","volume":"22","author":"McHugh ML","year":"2012","unstructured":"McHugh ML. Interrater reliability: the kappa statistic. Biochem Med (Zagreb). 2012;22(3):276-282. doi:10.11613\/BM.2012.031"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref24","series-title":"J Comp Pathol","first-page":"59","article-title":"Early pathogenesis and pathology of Tritrichomonas foetus infection in virgin heifers","volume":"86","author":"Parsonson IM","year":"1976","unstructured":"Parsonson IM, Clark BL, Dufty JH. Early pathogenesis and pathology of Tritrichomonas foetus infection in virgin heifers. J Comp Pathol. 1976;86(1):59-66. doi:10.1016\/0021-9975(76)90028-1"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref25","series-title":"Can Vet J","first-page":"255","article-title":"A comparison of the cytobrush and uterine lavage techniques to evaluate endometrial cytology in clinically normal postpartum dairy cows","volume":"46","author":"Kasimanickam R","year":"2005","unstructured":"Kasimanickam R, Duffield TF, Foster RA,  A comparison of the cytobrush and uterine lavage techniques to evaluate endometrial cytology in clinically normal postpartum dairy cows. Can Vet J. 2005;46(3):255-259."},{"issue":"3","key":"ref26","series-title":"Aust Vet J","first-page":"80","article-title":"Field and laboratory observations on trichomoniasis of dairy cattle in Victoria","volume":"35","author":"Murnank D","year":"1959","unstructured":"Murnank D. Field and laboratory observations on trichomoniasis of dairy cattle in Victoria. Aust Vet J. 1959;35(3):80-83. doi:10.1111\/j.1751-0813.1959.tb08429.x"},{"issue":"5","key":"ref27","series-title":"J Vet Diagn Invest","first-page":"982","article-title":"The influence of temperature and simulated transport conditions of diagnostic samples on real-time polymerase chain reaction for the detection of Tritrichomonas foetus DNA","volume":"23","author":"Clavijo A","year":"2011","unstructured":"Clavijo A, Erol E, Sneed L, Sun F, Swinford A. The influence of temperature and simulated transport conditions of diagnostic samples on real-time polymerase chain reaction for the detection of Tritrichomonas foetus DNA. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2011;23(5):982-985. doi:10.1177\/1040638711417143"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref28","series-title":"J Am Vet Med Assoc","first-page":"519","article-title":"Comparison of diagnostic methods for detection of active infection with Tritrichomonas foetus in beef heifers","volume":"213","author":"Kittel DR","year":"1998","unstructured":"Kittel DR, Campero C, Van Hoosear KA, Rhyan JC, BonDurant RH. Comparison of diagnostic methods for detection of active infection with Tritrichomonas foetus in beef heifers. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1998;213(4):519-522. doi:10.2460\/javma.1998.213.04.519"},{"issue":"3","key":"ref29","series-title":"Vet Parasitol","first-page":"343","article-title":"The immune response in cattle infected with Tritrichomonas foetus","volume":"33","author":"Soto P","year":"1989","unstructured":"Soto P, Parma AE. The immune response in cattle infected with Tritrichomonas foetus. Vet Parasitol. 1989;33(3):343-348. doi:10.1016\/0304-4017(89)90143-X"},{"issue":"9","key":"ref30","series-title":"Vaccine","first-page":"1341","article-title":"Clearance of Tritrichomonas foetus in experimentally infected heifers protected with vaccines based on killed-T. foetus with different adjuvants","volume":"35","author":"Fuchs LI","year":"2017","unstructured":"Fuchs LI, Fort MC, Cano D,  Clearance of Tritrichomonas foetus in experimentally infected heifers protected with vaccines based on killed-T. foetus with different adjuvants. Vaccine. 2017;35(9):1341-1346. doi:10.1016\/j.vaccine.2016.12.030"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref31","series-title":"Clin Theriogenol","first-page":"477","article-title":"Bull-to-cow ratios: practical formulae for estimating the number of bulls suggested for successful pasture breeding of female cattle","volume":"4","author":"Wenzel JGW","year":"2012","unstructured":"Wenzel JGW, Carson RL, Wolfe DF. Bull-to-cow ratios: practical formulae for estimating the number of bulls suggested for successful pasture breeding of female cattle. Clin Theriogenol. 2012;4(4):477-479."},{"issue":"7","key":"ref32","series-title":"Infect Immun","first-page":"2158","article-title":"Adherence of Tritrichomonas foetus to bovine vaginal epithelial cells","volume":"57","author":"Corbeil LB","year":"1989","unstructured":"Corbeil LB, Hodgson JL, Jones DW, Corbeil RR, Widders PR, Stephens LR. Adherence of Tritrichomonas foetus to bovine vaginal epithelial cells. Infect Immun. 1989;57(7):2158-2165. doi:10.1128\/iai.57.7.2158-2165.1989"}],"container-title":["Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/view\/journals\/javma\/264\/8\/javma.25.10.0707.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/javma\/264\/8\/javma.25.10.0707.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/javma\/264\/8\/javma.25.10.0707.xml","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T17:47:57Z","timestamp":1784569677000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/view\/journals\/javma\/264\/8\/javma.25.10.0707.xml"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2460\/javma.25.10.0707","relation":{},"ISSN":["0003-1488"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0003-1488","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]}}}