{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T17:54:45Z","timestamp":1792173285630,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":15,"publisher":"American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA)","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]],"date-time":"2026-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1793491200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["javma"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility and limitations of an AI-powered Feline Grimace Scale (FGS) pipeline for acute pain assessment in brachycephalic cats with ocular pain.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A total of 200 facial images of brachycephalic cats with ocular pain were used for model training and evaluation. A landmark localization model was used to predict facial landmarks. Pain prediction was performed with regression models from a machine-learning library (XGBoost; XGBoost Developers); 5 independent submodels were trained, each corresponding to 1 of the 5 FGS action units\u2014ear position, orbital tightening, muzzle tension, whiskers change, and head position. Three configurations were applied to input variables: without muzzle tension and whiskers change, without whiskers change and head position, and all geometric descriptors retained. The landmark localization performance was assessed via normalized root mean square error (NRMSE), whereas pain prediction was assessed via mean absolute error, Pearson correlation, and\n                      <jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      values.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Facial landmark detection showed reduced accuracy in brachycephalic cats (NRMSE, 19.96%) compared with previous reports in predominantly mesocephalic cats (NRMSE, 16.76%). Pain prediction models demonstrated poor generalizability, showing the best results for without muzzle tension and whiskers change (mean absolute error, 0.168;\n                      <jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic>\n                      <jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>\n                      , 0.115; Pearson correlation, 0.374).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Automated landmark detection and pain prediction using an AI-powered FGS pipeline is possible in brachycephalic cats. However, cautious interpretation is needed due to limited annotated data, which precludes robust predictive performance estimates.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Clinical Relevance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Conformation-specific datasets are required before this AI-powered FGS pipeline can be used for pain assessment in brachycephalic cats.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.26.04.0301","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T17:10:31Z","timestamp":1784740231000},"page":"1-6","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Automated acute pain assessment in brachycephalic cats with ocular pain using the Feline Grimace Scale"],"prefix":"10.2460","volume":"264","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4150-6043","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Paulo V.","family":"Steagall","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montr\u00e9al, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiapeng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabrine","family":"Marangoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montr\u00e9al, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Syed S. U. H.","family":"Bukhari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1272","reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"ref1","series-title":"J Feline Med Surg","first-page":"4","article-title":"2022 ISFM consensus guidelines on the management of acute pain in cats","volume":"24","author":"Steagall PV","year":"2022","unstructured":"Steagall PV, Robertson S, Simon B, Warne LN, Shilo-Benjamini Y, Taylor S. 2022 ISFM consensus guidelines on the management of acute pain in cats. J Feline Med Surg. 2022;24(1):4-30. doi:10.1177\/1098612X211066268"},{"issue":"4","key":"ref2","series-title":"J Small Anim Pract","first-page":"177","article-title":"2022 WSAVA guidelines for the recognition, assessment and treatment of pain","volume":"64","author":"Monteiro BP","year":"2023","unstructured":"Monteiro BP, Lascelles BDX, Murrell J, Robertson S, Steagall PVM, Wright B. 2022 WSAVA guidelines for the recognition, assessment and treatment of pain. J Small Anim Pract. 2023;64(4):177-254. doi:10.1111\/jsap.13566"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref3","series-title":"Sci Rep","first-page":"19128","article-title":"Facial expressions of pain in cats: the development and validation of a Feline Grimace Scale","volume":"9","author":"Evangelista MC","year":"2019","unstructured":"Evangelista MC, Watanabe R, Leung VSY,  Facial expressions of pain in cats: the development and validation of a Feline Grimace Scale. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):19128. doi:10.1038\/s41598-019-55693-8"},{"key":"ref4","series-title":"PeerJ","first-page":"e8967","article-title":"Clinical applicability of the Feline Grimace Scale: real-time versus image scoring and the influence of sedation and surgery","volume":"8","author":"Evangelista MC","year":"2020","unstructured":"Evangelista MC, Benito J, Monteiro BP,  Clinical applicability of the Feline Grimace Scale: real-time versus image scoring and the influence of sedation and surgery. PeerJ. 2020;8:e8967. doi:10.7717\/peerj.8967"},{"issue":"1","key":"ref5","series-title":"J Vet Intern Med","first-page":"aalaf062","article-title":"A systematic review of acute pain scoring instruments and their measurement properties in cats and dogs","volume":"40","author":"Lee J","year":"2026","unstructured":"Lee J, Steagall PV. A systematic review of acute pain scoring instruments and their measurement properties in cats and dogs. 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Prevalence and characteristics of feline ulcerative keratitis and corneal sequestra in a referral population and comparison between brachycephalic and nonbrachycephalic cats. Vet Ophthalmol. 2026;29(2):e70048. doi:10.1111\/vop.70048"}],"container-title":["Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/view\/journals\/javma\/264\/11\/javma.26.04.0301.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/javma\/264\/11\/javma.26.04.0301.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/javma\/264\/11\/javma.26.04.0301.xml","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T17:25:24Z","timestamp":1792171524000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/avmajournals.avma.org\/view\/journals\/javma\/264\/11\/javma.26.04.0301.xml"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]]},"references-count":15,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2460\/javma.26.04.0301","relation":{},"ISSN":["0003-1488"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0003-1488","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,1]]}}}