{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T14:24:13Z","timestamp":1785421453896,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"WHO Press","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Bull. World Health Organ."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,1]]},"DOI":"10.2471\/blt.16.177758","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,28]],"date-time":"2017-03-28T12:30:28Z","timestamp":1490704228000},"page":"250-260","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Active trachoma and community use of sanitation, Ethiopia"],"prefix":"10.2471","volume":"95","author":[{"given":"William E","family":"Oswald","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, WC1E 7HT, England."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aisha EP","family":"Stewart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Atlanta, United States of America (USA)."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael R","family":"Kramer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tekola","family":"Endeshaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mulat","family":"Zerihun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Berhanu","family":"Melak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eshetu","family":"Sata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Demelash","family":"Gessese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tesfaye","family":"Teferi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zerihun","family":"Tadesse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Birhan","family":"Guadie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amhara Regional Health Bureau, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathan D","family":"King","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Atlanta, United States of America (USA)."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul M","family":"Emerson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Atlanta, United States of America (USA)."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth K","family":"Callahan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Carter Center, Atlanta, United States of America (USA)."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dana","family":"Flanders","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christine L","family":"Moe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas F","family":"Clasen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, USA."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1305","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,26]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2011-300539","article-title":"Global estimates of visual impairment: 2010.","volume":"96","author":"Pascolini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"5","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2008.148494","article-title":"Trachoma: global magnitude of a preventable cause of blindness.","volume":"93","author":"Mariotti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"39","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R3","first-page":"421","article-title":"WHO Alliance for the Global Elimination of Blinding Trachoma by the year 2020. Progress report on elimination of trachoma, 2013.","volume":"89","year":"2014","journal-title":"Wkly Epidemiol Rec"},{"issue":"10","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e460","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000460","article-title":"The global burden of trachoma: a review.","volume":"3","author":"Burton","year":"2009","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"6","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2010.02521.x","article-title":"Epidemiology and control of trachoma: systematic review.","volume":"15","author":"Hu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-3156.2000.00603.x","article-title":"Review of the evidence base for the \u2018F\u2019 and \u2018E\u2019 components of the SAFE strategy for trachoma control.","volume":"5","author":"Emerson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"issue":"10","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2008.11.023","article-title":"Evaluation of three years of the SAFE strategy (Surgery, Antibiotics, Facial cleanliness and Environmental improvement) for trachoma control in five districts of Ethiopia hyperendemic for trachoma.","volume":"103","author":"Ngondi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"3","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e197","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000197","article-title":"Integrating an NTD with one of \u201cthe big three\u201d: combined malaria and trachoma survey in Amhara Region of Ethiopia.","volume":"2","author":"Emerson","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R9","first-page":"211","article-title":"Prevalence of trachoma in Ethiopia.","volume":"21","author":"Berhane","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ethiop J Health Dev."},{"issue":"3","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R10","first-page":"233","article-title":"The SAFE strategy for the elimination of trachoma by 2020: will it work?","volume":"79","author":"Bailey","year":"2001","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"issue":"5","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2003.69.18","article-title":"Blinding trachoma: prevention with the safe strategy.","volume":"69","author":"West","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"1","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/S0035-9203(00)90427-9","article-title":"Transmission ecology of the fly Musca sorbens, a putative vector of trachoma.","volume":"94","author":"Emerson","year":"2000","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"3","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0269-283x.2001.00318.x","article-title":"Human and other faeces as breeding media of the trachoma vector Musca sorbens.","volume":"15","author":"Emerson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Med Vet Entomol"},{"issue":"9162","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)09158-2","article-title":"Effect of fly control on trachoma and diarrhoea.","volume":"353","author":"Emerson","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"4","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2009.10.009","article-title":"Assessment of latrine use and quality and association with risk of trachoma in rural Tanzania.","volume":"104","author":"Montgomery","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"2","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1001605","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pmed.1001605","article-title":"Effect of water, sanitation, and hygiene on the prevention of trachoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis.","volume":"11","author":"Stocks","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Med"},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R17","author":"Solomon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trachoma control: a guide for programme managers."},{"issue":"6","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2223","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002223","article-title":"Intestinal parasite prevalence in an area of Ethiopia after implementing the SAFE strategy, enhanced outreach services, and health extension program.","volume":"7","author":"King","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"3","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2732","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002732","article-title":"Prevalence of trachoma at sub-district level in Ethiopia: determining when to stop mass azithromycin distribution.","volume":"8","author":"King","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"1","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/25.1.198","article-title":"A not quite as quick but much cleaner alternative to the Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) cluster survey design.","volume":"25","author":"Turner","year":"1996","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R21","year":"2006","journal-title":"Monitoring the situation of children and women. multiple indicator cluster survey manual 2005."},{"issue":"4","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R22","first-page":"477","article-title":"A simple system for the assessment of trachoma and its complications.","volume":"65","author":"Thylefors","year":"1987","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"issue":"9","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e74570","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0074570","article-title":"A novel electronic data collection system for large-scale surveys of neglected tropical diseases.","volume":"8","author":"King","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"5","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3156.2010.02500.x","article-title":"Effect of a community intervention with pit latrines in five districts of Amhara, Ethiopia.","volume":"15","author":"Ngondi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trop Med Int Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.56.8.588","article-title":"A glossary for multilevel analysis.","volume":"56","author":"Diez Roux","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health"},{"issue":"12","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2009.088310","article-title":"Individual and collective bodies: using measures of variance and association in contextual epidemiology.","volume":"63","author":"Merlo","year":"2009","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2288-9-49","article-title":"Fitting multilevel models in complex survey data with design weights: recommendations.","volume":"9","author":"Carle","year":"2009","journal-title":"BMC Med Res Methodol"},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118032619","author":"Korn","year":"1999","journal-title":"Analysis of health surveys."},{"issue":"4","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2004.029454","article-title":"A brief conceptual tutorial of multilevel analysis in social epidemiology: using measures of clustering in multilevel logistic regression to investigate contextual phenomena.","volume":"60","author":"Merlo","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health"},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R30","unstructured":"Bright EA, Coleman PR, Rose AN, Urban ML. LandScan 2011. Oak Ridge: Oak Ridge National Laboratory; 2012. Available from: http:\/\/www.ornl.gov\/landscan\/ [cited 2015 Apr 17]."},{"issue":"5","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0b013e318225c2be","article-title":"DAGitty: a graphical tool for analyzing causal diagrams.","volume":"22","author":"Textor","year":"2011","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R32","author":"Rothman","year":"2008","edition":"3rd ed.","journal-title":"Modern epidemiology."},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R33","article-title":"Multilevel and longitudinal modeling using Stata. Third Edition, Volume II: Categorical responses, counts, and survival","author":"Rabe-Hesketh","year":"2012"},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R34","author":"Kleinbaum","year":"1982","journal-title":"Epidemiologic research: principles and quantitative methods."},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R35","author":"Neter","year":"1985","journal-title":"Applied linear statistical models: regression, analysis of variance and experimental designs."},{"issue":"9415","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)15891-1","article-title":"Role of flies and provision of latrines in trachoma control: cluster-randomised controlled trial.","volume":"363","author":"Emerson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"issue":"2","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.inhe.2011.03.004","article-title":"Efficacy of latrine promotion on emergence of infection with ocular Chlamydia trachomatis after mass antibiotic treatment: a cluster-randomized trial.","volume":"3","author":"Stoller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.13-0299","article-title":"The association between latrine use and trachoma: a secondary cohort analysis from a randomized clinical trial.","volume":"89","author":"Haile","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am J Trop Med Hyg"},{"issue":"4","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1001\/archophthalmol.2011.46","article-title":"Slow resolution of clinically active trachoma following successful mass antibiotic treatments.","volume":"129","author":"Keenan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"9","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2439","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002439","article-title":"Integration of water, sanitation, and hygiene for the prevention and control of neglected tropical diseases: a rationale for inter-sectoral collaboration.","volume":"7","author":"Freeman","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Negl Trop Dis"},{"issue":"9599","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1622","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61638-9","article-title":"Effect of city-wide sanitation programme on reduction in rate of childhood diarrhoea in northeast Brazil: assessment by two cohort studies.","volume":"370","author":"Barreto","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R42","author":"Bateman","year":"1991","journal-title":"A comparison of the health effects of water supply and sanitation in urban and rural Guatemala."},{"issue":"2","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R43","first-page":"73","article-title":"Sanitation, community environments, and childhood diarrhoea in rural Zimbabwe.","volume":"19","author":"Root","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Health Popul Nutr"},{"issue":"2","key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyv368","article-title":"I get height with a little help from my friends: herd protection from sanitation on child growth in rural Ecuador.","volume":"45","author":"Fuller","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int J Epidemiol"},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R45","year":"2014","journal-title":"Estimates on the use of water sources and sanitation facilities."},{"key":"key-10.2471\/BLT.16.177758-201703281417-R46","author":"Kar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Handbook on community-led total sanitation."}],"container-title":["Bulletin of the World Health Organization"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,19]],"date-time":"2025-03-19T17:18:25Z","timestamp":1742404705000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC5407250\/pdf\/BLT.16.177758.pdf"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,26]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,26]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2471\/blt.16.177758","relation":{},"ISSN":["0042-9686"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0042-9686","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,1,26]]}}}