{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T05:45:40Z","timestamp":1785735940174,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"Scientific Scholar","content-domain":{"domain":["ijmr.org.in"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Indian J Med Res"],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background and objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Large-scale studies on the prevalence of substance use disorder among people in prisons from developing countries such as India are limited, despite a sizeable number of individuals lodged in prisons. The present study aimed to assess the prevalence of various psychoactive substance use among people in prisons in India, and to assess factors associated with psychoactive substance use in prison.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Seventeen prisons from 9 States representing different geographical regions of the country were selected. 7004 incarcerated people selected by systematic sampling were interviewed using a structured questionnaire.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Majority were incarcerated for the first time (n=5372, 77%) and were under remand awaiting trial or sentencing (n=4537, 65%). The proportion of incarcerated persons with lifetime use of alcohol, cannabis, and opioids was 51% (n=3579), 20% (n=1383), and 11% (n=758), respectively. 21% (n=752) of alcohol users, 30% (n=411) of cannabis users, and 45% (n=340) of opioid users used alcohol, cannabis, and opioids respectively daily in the one month before their current imprisonment. 5.9% (n=412) used a psychoactive substance (including alcohol and illicit drugs) during their current imprisonment, most commonly, cannabis (3.9%, n=273). Multivariable regression showed that psychoactive substance use in prison was significantly associated with younger age [odds ratio (OR): 1.4, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.1, 1.8], multiple imprisonment (OR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.3, 2.0), cannabis use before imprisonment (OR: 5.5, 95% CI: 4.1, 7.4), and substance withdrawals inside prison (alcohol OR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.4, 2.4, cannabis OR: 2.9, 95% CI: 2.1, 4.1, opioids OR: 3.1; 95% CI: 2.3, 4.2).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Interpretations and conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The study documents high lifetime substance use among individuals in prisons in India and identifies various factors associated with substance use during current imprisonment.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.25259\/ijmr_3378_2025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,2]],"date-time":"2026-08-02T19:47:34Z","timestamp":1785700054000},"page":"295-303","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.25259\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Prevalence of and factors associated with psychoactive substance use among people in prisons: A multi-centre, cross-sectional study in India"],"prefix":"10.25259","volume":"164","author":[{"given":"Ravindra","family":"Rao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Preethy","family":"Kathiresan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, ew Delhi, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ashwani Kumar","family":"Mishra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Atul","family":"Ambekar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alok","family":"Agrawal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roshan","family":"Bhad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amit","family":"Arya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, King George\u2019s Medical University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sanjay Kumar","family":"Munda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Addiction Psychiatry, Central Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sourav","family":"Khanra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Addiction Psychiatry, Central Institute of Psychiatry, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arun","family":"Kandasamy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Addiction Medicine, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ajeet","family":"Sidana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Government Medical College and Hospital, Chandigarh, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Uma Shankar","family":"Molanguri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Mental Health, Hyderabad, Telangana, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gojendra Singh","family":"Senjam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Regional Institute of Medical Sciences, Imphal, Manipur, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dhrubajyoti","family":"Bhuyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Assam Medical College, Dibrugarh, Assam, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kranti","family":"Kadam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, King Edward Memorial Hospital & Seth GS Medical College, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abdul","family":"Majid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, SKIMS Medical College and Hospital, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"10894","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-1","volume-title":"World prison population list","author":"Walmsley","year":"2018","edition":"12th ed"},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1177\/1078345819837909","article-title":"The global state of harm reduction in prisons","volume":"25","author":"Sander","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Correct Health Care."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1725","DOI":"10.1111\/add.13877","article-title":"Substance use disorders in prisoners: An updated systematic review and meta-regression analysis in recently incarcerated men and women","volume":"112","author":"Fazel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addiction."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxx016","article-title":"Substance Use during imprisonment in low- and middle-income countries","volume":"40","author":"Mundt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemiol Rev."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e461","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(18)30539-4","article-title":"Severe mental illness and substance use disorders in prisoners in low-income and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence studies","volume":"7","author":"Baranyi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet Glob Health."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30769-3","article-title":"Prevention of transmission of HIV, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and tuberculosis in prisoners","volume":"388","author":"Kamarulzaman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2008.976","article-title":"Treating drug abuse and addiction in the criminal justice system: Improving public health and safety","volume":"301","author":"Chandler","year":"2009","journal-title":"JAMA."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1177\/02537176241228415","article-title":"Drug-related offences in India: Observations and insights from the secondary analysis of the data from the National Crime Records Bureau","volume":"46","author":"Balhara","year":"2024","journal-title":"Indian J Psychol Med."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1007\/s44192-025-00198-2","article-title":"Rethinking on the interplay of substance abuse and mental health in Indian prisons: A critical analysis","volume":"5","author":"Bansal","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discov Ment Health."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.25259\/ABMH_8_2023","article-title":"Substance use disorder and prison: Special focus on opioid dependence","volume":"1","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2023","journal-title":"ABMH."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2013.01.001","article-title":"India\u2019s national narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances policy, 2012: A 20th century document in the 21st century","volume":"24","author":"Ambekar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int J Drug Policy."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-18","volume-title":"Classical and modern regression with applications","author":"Myers","year":"1986"},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.3109\/09687637.2016.1153604","article-title":"Drugs in prisons: Exploring use, control, treatment and policy","volume":"23","author":"Kolind","year":"2016","journal-title":"Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15406\/frcij.2017.05.00158","article-title":"Behind bars: The truth about drugs in prisons","volume":"5","author":"Hagan","year":"2017","journal-title":"FRCIJ."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2023.104248","article-title":"Factors associated with drug use in prison: A systematic review of quantitative and qualitative evidence","volume":"122","author":"Austin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Drug Policy."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1080\/10683160208401818","article-title":"The role of substance abuse factors in predicting recidivism: A Meta-analysis","volume":"8","author":"Dowden","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychology, Crime & Law."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsat.2015.08.009","article-title":"Factors affecting drug use during incarceration: A cross-sectional study of opioid-dependent persons from India","volume":"61","author":"Rao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Subst Abuse Treat."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0225189","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0225189","article-title":"Consumption of psychoactive substances in prison: Between initiation and improvement, what trajectories occur after incarceration? COSMOS study data","volume":"14","author":"Rousselet","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLoS One."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1093\/epirev\/mxy004","article-title":"Substance use and recidivism outcomes for prison-based drug and alcohol interventions","volume":"40","author":"de Andrade","year":"2018","journal-title":"Epidemiol Rev."},{"key":"10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025\/ref-27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.21210","article-title":"Treatment of substance use disorders in prison settings: statement by the UNODC\u2010WHO informal scientific network, UN commission on narcotic drugs","volume":"23","author":"Volkow","year":"2024","journal-title":"World Psychiatry."}],"container-title":["The Indian Journal of Medical Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/ijmr.org.in\/prevalence-of-and-factors-associated-with-psychoactive-substance-use-among-people-in-prisons-a-multi-centre-cross-sectional-study-in-india\/","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/ijmr.org.in\/prevalence-of-and-factors-associated-with-psychoactive-substance-use-among-people-in-prisons-a-multi-centre-cross-sectional-study-in-india\/","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T05:24:48Z","timestamp":1785734688000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/ijmr.org.in\/prevalence-of-and-factors-associated-with-psychoactive-substance-use-among-people-in-prisons-a-multi-centre-cross-sectional-study-in-india\/"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"references-count":20,"alternative-id":["10.25259\/IJMR_3378_2025"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.25259\/ijmr_3378_2025","relation":{},"ISSN":["0971-5916"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0971-5916","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"article-number":"295"}}