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Noting that there is a passionate debate about the design of initial learning, we report evidence from a meta-analysis of 53 studies with 166 comparisons that compared PS-I with I-PS design. Our results showed a significant, moderate effect in favor of PS-I (Hedge\u2019s g 0.36 [95% confidence interval 0.20; 0.51]). The effects were even stronger (Hedge\u2019s g ranging between 0.37 and 0.58) when PS-I was implemented with high fidelity to the principles of Productive Failure (PF), a subset variant of PS-I design. Students\u2019 grade level, intervention time span, and its (quasi-)experimental nature contributed to the efficacy of PS-I over I-PS designs. Contrasting trends were, however, observed for younger age learners (second to fifth graders) and for the learning of domain-general skills, for which effect sizes favored I-PS. Overall, an estimation of true effect sizes after accounting for publication bias suggested a strong effect size favoring PS-I (Hedge\u2019s g 0.87).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543211019105","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,18]],"date-time":"2021-06-18T08:10:51Z","timestamp":1624003851000},"page":"761-798","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":185,"title":["When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure"],"prefix":"10.3102","volume":"91","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3069-2899","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tanmay","family":"Sinha","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"ETH Z\u00fcrich"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manu","family":"Kapur","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ETH Z\u00fcrich"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1604","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-00346543211019105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ashman G., Kalyuga S., Sweller J. 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