{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T16:10:29Z","timestamp":1792512629016,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":131,"publisher":"IMR Press","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]],"date-time":"2022-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643328000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Integr. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Converging evidence from biopsychosocial research in humans and animals demonstrates that chronic sensory stimulation (via excessive screen exposure) affects brain development increasing the risk of cognitive, emotional, and behavioural disorders in adolescents and young adults. Emerging evidence suggests that some of these effects are similar to those seen in adults with symptoms of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in the early stages of dementia, including impaired concentration, orientation, acquisition of recent memories (anterograde amnesia), recall of past memories (retrograde amnesia), social functioning, and self-care. Excessive screen time is known to alter gray matter and white volumes in the brain, increase the risk of mental disorders, and impair acquisition of memories and learning which are known risk factors for dementia. Chronic sensory overstimulation (i.e., excessive screen time) during brain development increases the risk of accelerated neurodegeneration in adulthood (i.e., amnesia, early onset dementia). This relationship is affected by several mediating\/moderating factors (e.g., IQ decline, learning impairments and mental illness). We hypothesize that excessive screen exposure during critical periods of development in Generation Z will lead to mild cognitive impairments in early to middle adulthood resulting in substantially increased rates of early onset dementia in later adulthood. We predict that from 2060 to 2100, the rates of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and related dementias (ADRD) will increase significantly, far above the Centres for Disease Control (CDC) projected estimates of a two-fold increase, to upwards of a four-to-six-fold increase. The CDC estimates are based entirely on factors related to the age, sex, race and ethnicity of individuals born before 1950 who did not have access to mobile digital technology during critical periods of brain development. Compared to previous generations, the average 17\u201319-year-old spends approximately 6 hours a day on mobile digital devices (MDD) (smartphones, tablets, and laptop computers) whereas individuals born before 1950 at the same age spent zero. Our estimates include the documented effects of excessive screen time on individuals born after 1980, Millennials and Generation Z, who will be the majority of individuals \u226565 years old. An estimated 4-to-6-fold increase in rates of ADRD post-2060 will result in widespread societal and economic distress and the complete collapse of already overburdened healthcare systems in developed countries. Preventative measures must be set in place immediately including investments and interventions in public education, social policy, laws, and healthcare.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.31083\/j.jin2101028","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]],"date-time":"2022-01-29T11:28:26Z","timestamp":1643455706000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":113,"title":["Digital dementia in the internet generation: excessive screen time during brain development will increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease and related dementias in adulthood"],"prefix":"10.31083","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Laurie A.","family":"Manwell","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Merelle","family":"Tadros","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Science, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tiana M.","family":"Ciccarelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Science, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roelof","family":"Eikelboom","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"16242","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Matthews KA, Xu W, Gaglioti AH, Holt JB, Croft JB, Mack D, et al. Racial and ethnic estimates of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and related dementias in the United States (2015\u20132060) in adults aged \u226565 years. Alzheimer\u2019s & Dementia. 2019; 15: 17\u201324.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2018.06.3063"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lynn R, Harvey J. The decline of the world\u2019s IQ. Intelligence. 2008; 36: 112\u2013120.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2007.03.004"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bratsberg B, Rogeberg O. Flynn effect and its reversal are both environmentally caused. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2018; 115: 6674\u20136678.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1718793115"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neophytou E, Manwell LA, Eikelboom R. Effects of Excessive Screen Time on Neurodevelopment, Learning, Memory, Mental Health, and Neurodegeneration: a Scoping Review. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2019; 19: 724\u2013744.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11469-019-00182-2"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valenzuela MJ, Sachdev P. Brain reserve and dementia: a systematic review. Psychological Medicine. 2005; 36: 441\u2013454.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291705006264"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Linebarger DL, Walker D. Infants\u2019 and Toddlers\u2019 Television Viewing and Language Outcomes. American Behavioral Scientist. 2005; 48: 624\u2013645.","DOI":"10.1177\/0002764204271505"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madigan S, Browne D, Racine N, Mori C, Tough S. Association between Screen Time and Children\u2019s Performance on a Developmental Screening Test. American Medical Association. 2019; 173: 244\u2013250.","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2018.5056"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mangen A, Walgermo BR, Br\u00f8nnick K. Reading linear texts on paper versus computer screen: Effects on reading comprehension. International Journal of Educational Research. 2013; 58: 61\u201368.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijer.2012.12.002"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glass AL, Kang M. Dividing attention in the classroom reduces exam performance. Educational Psychology. 2019; 39: 395\u2013408.","DOI":"10.1080\/01443410.2018.1489046"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sparrow B, Liu J, Wegner DM. Google effects on memory: cognitive consequences of having information at our fingertips. Science. 2011; 333: 776\u2013778.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1207745"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tamir DI, Templeton EM, Ward AF, Zaki J. Media usage diminishes memory for experiences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2018; 76: 161\u2013168.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jesp.2018.01.006"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christakis DA, Zimmerman FJ, DiGiuseppe DL, McCarty CA. Early television exposure and subsequent attentional problems in children. Pediatrics. 2004; 113: 708\u2013713.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.113.4.708"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christakis DA, Ramirez JSB, Ferguson SM, Ravinder S, Ramirez J. How early media exposure may affect cognitive function: a review of results from observations in humans and experiments in mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2018; 115: 9851\u20139858.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1711548115"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carrier LM, Cheever NA, Rosen LD, Benitez S, Chang J. Multitasking across generations: Multitasking choices and difficulty ratings in three generations of Americans. Computers in Human Behavior. 2009; 25: 483\u2013489.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2008.10.012"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hartanto A, Yang H. Is the smartphone a smart choice? The effect of smartphone separation on executive functions. Computers in Human Behavior. 2016; 64: 329\u2013336.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2016.07.002"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward AF, Duke K, Gneezy A, Bos MW. Brain Drain: the Mere Presence of one\u2019s Own Smartphone Reduces Available Cognitive Capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research. 2017; 2: 140\u2013154.","DOI":"10.1086\/691462"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boers E, Afzali MH, Newton N, Conrod P. Association of Screen Time and Depression in Adolescence. Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2019; 173: 853\u2013859.","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapediatrics.2019.1759"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lepp A, Barkley JE, Karpinski AC. The relationship between cell phone use, academic performance, anxiety, and Satisfaction with Life in college students. Computers in Human Behavior. 2014; 31: 343\u2013350.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2013.10.049"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maras D, Flament MF, Murray M, Buchholz A, Henderson KA, Obeid N, et al. Screen time is associated with depression and anxiety in Canadian youth. Preventive Medicine. 2015; 73: 133\u2013138.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ypmed.2015.01.029"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Twenge JM, Campbell WK. Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive Medicine Reports. 2018; 12: 271\u2013283.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmedr.2018.10.003"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Twenge JM, Cooper AB, Joiner TE, Duffy ME, Binau SG. Age, period, and cohort trends in mood disorder indicators and suicide-related outcomes in a nationally representative dataset, 2005\u20132017. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2019; 128: 185\u2013199.","DOI":"10.1037\/abn0000410"},{"key":"ref22","unstructured":"Kolb B, Wishaw IQ. Fundamentals of Neuropsychology. 7th edn. Worth Publishers: New York. 2015."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McNicol ML, Thorsteinsson EB. Internet Addiction, Psychological Distress, and Coping Responses among Adolescents and Adults. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking. 2017; 20: 296\u2013303.","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2016.0669"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Selfhout MHW, Branje SJT, Delsing M, ter Bogt TFM, Meeus WHJ. Different types of Internet use, depression, and social anxiety: the role of perceived friendship quality. Journal of Adolescence. 2009; 32: 819\u2013833.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adolescence.2008.10.011"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gommans R, Stevens GWJM, Finne E, Cillessen AHN, Boniel-Nissim M, Ter-Bogt TFM. Frequent electronic media communication with friends is associated with higher adolescent substance use. International Journal of Public Health. 2015; 60: 167\u2013177.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-014-0624-0"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hall W, Degenhardt L, Teesson M. Understanding comorbidity between substance use, anxiety and affective disorders: broadening the research base. Addictive Behaviors. 2009; 34: 526\u2013530.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2009.03.010"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hulse GK, Lautenschalger NT, Tait RJ, Almeida O. Dementia associated with alcohol and other drug use. International Psychogeriatrics. 2005; 17: S109\u2013S127.","DOI":"10.1017\/S1041610205001985"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zilkens R, Bruce D, Duke J, Spilsbury K, Semmens J. Severe Psychiatric Disorders in Mid-Life and Risk of Dementia in Late-Life (Age 65\u201384 Years): a Population Based Case-Control Study. Current Alzheimer Research. 2014; 11: 681\u2013693.","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205011666140812115004"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"He Q, Turel O, Brevers D, Bechara A. Excess social media use in normal populations is associated with amygdala-striatal but not with prefrontal morphology. Psychiatry Research. Neuroimaging. 2017; 269: 31\u201335.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2017.09.003"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong S, Zalesky A, Cocchi L, Fornito A, Choi E, Kim H, et al. Decreased functional brain connectivity in adolescents with internet addiction. PLoS ONE. 2013; 8: e57831.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0057831"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong SB, Kim JW, Choi EJ, Kim HH, Suh JE, Kim CD, et al. Reduced orbitofrontal cortical thickness in male adolescents with internet addiction. Behavioral and Brain Functions. 2013; 9: 1\u20135.","DOI":"10.1186\/1744-9081-9-11"},{"key":"ref32","unstructured":"Lee L. Screen time changes structure of kids\u2019 brains. \u201c60 minutes\u201d says. 2018. Available at: https:\/\/www.cbsnews.com\/news\/groundbreaking-study-examines-effects-of-screen-time-on-kids-60-minutes\/ (Accessed: 19 September 2021)."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paulus MP, Squeglia LM, Bagot K, Jacobus J, Kuplicki R, Breslin FJ, et al. Screen media activity and brain structure in youth: Evidence for diverse structural correlation networks from the ABCD study. NeuroImage. 2019; 185: 140\u2013153.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.10.040"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weng C, Qian R, Fu X, Lin B, Han X, Niu C, et al. Gray matter and white matter abnormalities in online game addiction. European Journal of Radiology. 2013; 82: 1308\u20131312.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2013.01.031"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan K, Qin W, Wang G, Zeng F, Zhao L, Yang X, et al. Microstructure abnormalities in adolescents with internet addiction disorder. PLoS ONE. 2011; 6: e20708.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0020708"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan K, Cheng P, Dong T, Bi Y, Xing L, Yu D, et al. Cortical thickness abnormalities in late adolescence with online gaming addiction. PLoS ONE. 2013; 8: e53055.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0053055"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loh KK, Kanai R. How has the Internet Reshaped Human Cognition? The Neuroscientist: a Review Journal Bringing Neurobiology, Neurology and Psychiatry. 2016; 22: 506\u2013520.","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858415595005"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hunt MG, Marx R, Lipson C, Young J. No more FOMO: Limiting social media decreases loneliness and depression. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 2018; 37: 751\u2013768.","DOI":"10.1521\/jscp.2018.37.10.751"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yen J, Yen C, Chen C, Tang T, Ko C. The Association between Adult ADHD Symptoms and Internet Addiction among College Students: the Gender Difference. CyberPsychology & Behavior. 2009; 12: 187\u2013191.","DOI":"10.1089\/cpb.2008.0113"},{"key":"ref40","unstructured":"Martin K. Electronic Overload: The Impact of Excessive Screen Use on Child and Adolescent Health and Wellbeing. 2011. Available at: https:\/\/www.natureplaywa.org.au\/library\/1\/file\/Resources\/research\/K%20Martin%202011%20Electronic%20Overload%20DSR%20(2).pdf (Accessed: 24 March 2011)."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Twenge JM, Krizan Z, Hisler G. Decreases in self-reported sleep duration among U.S. adolescents 2009\u20132015 and association with new media screen time. Sleep Medicine. 2017; 39: 47\u201353.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2017.08.013"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wethington H, Pan L, Sherry B. The association of screen time, television in the bedroom, and obesity among school-aged youth: 2007 national survey of children\u2019s health. Journal of School Health. 2013; 83: 573\u2013581.","DOI":"10.1111\/josh.12067"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Twenge JM, Campbell WK, Sherman RA. Declines in vocabulary among American adults within levels of educational attainment (1974\u20132016). Intelligence. 2019; 76: 101377.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2019.101377"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Twenge JM, Martin GN, Spitzberg BH. Trends in US Adolescents\u2019 media use: The rise of digital media, the decline of TV, and the (near) demise of print. Psychology of Popular Media Culture. 2019; 8: 329\u2013345.","DOI":"10.1037\/ppm0000203"},{"key":"ref45","unstructured":"Thambisetty M. Mild cognitive impairment: An update for the practicing clinician. BMH Medical Journal. 2020; 7."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanders S, Morano C. Alzheimer\u2019s disease and related dementias. Journal of Gerontological Social Work. 2008; 50: 191\u2013214.","DOI":"10.1080\/01634370802137900"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeste DV, Finkel SI. Psychosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and related dementias. Diagnostic criteria for a distinct syndrome. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 2000; 8: 29\u201334.","DOI":"10.1097\/00019442-200002000-00004"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Porter VR, Buxton WG, Fairbanks LA, Strickland T, O\u2019Connor SM, Rosenberg-Thompson S, et al. Frequency and characteristics of anxiety among patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease and related dementias. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 2003; 15: 180\u2013186.","DOI":"10.1176\/jnp.15.2.180"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi L, Chen S, Ma M, Bao Y, Han Y, Wang Y, et al. Sleep disturbances increase the risk of dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews. 2018; 40: 4\u201316.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2017.06.010"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anderson VM, Schott JM, Bartlett JW, Leung KK, Miller DH, Fox NC. Gray matter atrophy rate as a marker of disease progression in AD. Neurobiology of Aging. 2012; 33: 1194\u20131202.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2010.11.001"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Avants BB, Cook PA, Ungar L, Gee JC, Grossman M. Dementia induces correlated reductions in white matter integrity and cortical thickness: a multivariate neuroimaging study with sparse canonical correlation analysis. NeuroImage. 2010; 50: 1004\u20131016.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.01.041"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fox NC, Crum WR, Scahill RI, Stevens JM, Janssen JC, Rossor MN. Imaging of onset and progression of Alzheimer\u2019s disease with voxel-compression mapping of serial magnetic resonance images. Lancet. 2001; 358: 201\u2013205.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)05408-3"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jack CR, Shiung MM, Gunter JL, O\u2019Brien PC, Weigand SD, Knopman DS, et al. Comparison of different MRI brain atrophy rate measures with clinical disease progression in AD. Neurology. 2004; 62: 591\u2013600.","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000110315.26026.EF"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scahill RI, Schott JM, Stevens JM, Rossor MN, Fox NC. Mapping the evolution of regional atrophy in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: unbiased analysis of fluid-registered serial MRI. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2002; 99: 4703\u20134707.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.052587399"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stout JC, Jernigan TL, Archibald SL, Salmon DP. Association of dementia severity with cortical gray matter and abnormal white matter volumes in dementia of the Alzheimer type. Archives of Neurology. 1996; 53: 742\u2013749.","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1996.00550080056013"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin F, Zhou Y, Du Y, Qin L, Zhao Z, Xu J, et al. Abnormal white matter integrity in adolescents with internet addiction disorder: a tract-based spatial statistics study. PLoS ONE. 2012; 7: e30253.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0030253"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehmann M, Rohrer JD, Clarkson MJ, Ridgway GR, Scahill RI, Modat M, et al. Reduced Cortical Thickness in the Posterior Cingulate Gyrus is Characteristic of both Typical and Atypical Alzheimer\u2019s Disease. Journal of Alzheimer\u2019s Diseases. 2010; 20: 587\u2013598.","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2010-1401"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dutton E, Van Der Linden D, Lynn R. The negative Flynn effect: A systematic review. Intelligence. 2016; 59: 163\u2013169.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2016.10.002"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flynn JR. The mean IQ of Americans: Massive gains 1932 to 1978. Psychological Bulletin. 1984; 95: 29\u201351.","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0033-2909.95.1.29"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flynn JR. Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological bulletin, 1987; 101: 171\u2013191.","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0033-2909.101.2.171"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flynn JR, Rossi-Cas\u00e9 L. IQ gains in Argentina between 1964 and 1998. Intelligence. 2012; 40: 145\u2013150.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2012.01.006"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pietschnig J, Voracek M. One Century of Global IQ Gains: a Formal Meta-Analysis of the Flynn Effect (1909\u20132013) Perspectives on Psychological Science. 2015; 10: 282\u2013306.","DOI":"10.1177\/1745691615577701"},{"key":"ref63","unstructured":"Twenge JM. iGen: Why Today\u2019s Super-Connected Kids are Growing Up Less Rebellious, More Tolerant, Less Happy and Completely Unprepared for Adulthood (and What This Means for the Rest of Us). Atria Books: New York. 2017."},{"key":"ref64","unstructured":"Viens A. Visualizing Social Media Use by Generation. 2019. Available at: https:\/\/www.visualcapitalist.com\/visualizing-social-media-use-by-generation\/ (Accessed: 21 September 2019)."},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"And\u00f2 R, Pizza S, Corsini F. Watching television today. A comparative survey of Italian and American students\u2019 habits in front of television. Journal of Italian Cinema & Media Studies. 2016; 4: 283\u2013306.","DOI":"10.1386\/jicms.4.2.283_1"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dias P. Motivations for multi-screening: an exploratory study on motivations and gratifications. European Journal of Communication. 2016; 31: 678\u2013693.","DOI":"10.1177\/0267323116674111"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marinelli A, And\u00f2 R. Multiscreening and social TV. Journal of European Television History and Culture. 2014; 3: 24\u201336.","DOI":"10.18146\/2213-0969.2014.jethc067"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGill M, Williamson JH, Brewster SA. A review of collocated multi-user TV. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing. 2015; 19: 743\u2013759.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00779-015-0860-1"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angell R, Gorton M, Sauer J, Bottomley P, White J. Don\u2019t Distract me when I\u2019m Media Multitasking: toward a Theory for Raising Advertising Recall and Recognition. Journal of Advertising. 2016; 45: 198\u2013210.","DOI":"10.1080\/00913367.2015.1130665"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeong S, Hwang Y. Media Multitasking Effects on Cognitive vs. Attitudinal Outcomes: a Meta-Analysis. Human Communication Research. 2016; 42: 599\u2013618.","DOI":"10.1111\/hcre.12089"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kazakova S, Cauberghe V, Pandelaere M, De Pelsmacker P. Can\u2019t See the Forest for the Trees? The Effect of Media Multitasking on Cognitive Processing Style. Media Psychology. 2015; 18: 425\u2013450.","DOI":"10.1080\/15213269.2015.1006789"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Segijn CM, Voorveld HAM, Smit EG. The underlying mechanisms of multiscreening. Journal of Advertising. 2016; 45: 391\u2013402.","DOI":"10.1080\/00913367.2016.1172386"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Segijn CM, Voorveld HM, Vandeberg L, Smit EG. The battle of screens: Unraveling attention allocation and memory effects when multiscreening. Human Communication Research. 2017; 43: 295\u2013314.","DOI":"10.1111\/hcre.12106"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collins A, Koechlin E. Reasoning, learning, and creativity: frontal lobe function and human decision-making. PLoS Biology. 2012; 10: e1001293.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001293"},{"key":"ref75","unstructured":"Yamamoto H, Ito K, Honda C, Aramaki E. Does digital dementia exist? California: Spring Symposium. 2018."},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barr N, Pennycook G, Stolz JA, Fugelsang JA. The brain in your pocket: Evidence that Smartphones are used to supplant thinking. Computers in Human Behavior. 2015; 48: 473\u2013480.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2015.02.029"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andersen SL. Trajectories of brain development: point of vulnerability or window of opportunity? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2003; 27: 3\u201318.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(03)00005-8"},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giedd JN, Raznahan A, Alexander-Bloch A, Schmitt E, Gogtay N, Rapoport JL. Child psychiatry branch of the National Institute of Mental Health longitudinal structural magnetic resonance imaging study of human brain development. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2015; 40: 43\u201349.","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2014.236"},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kolb B, Whishaw IQ. Brain plasticity and behavior. Annual Review of Psychology. 1998; 49: 43\u201364.","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.49.1.43"},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geng X, Li G, Lu Z, Gao W, Wang L, Shen D, et al. Structural and Maturational Covariance in Early Childhood Brain Development. Cerebral Cortex. 2017; 27: 1795\u20131807.","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhw022"},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saggar M, Hosseini SMH, Bruno JL, Quintin E, Raman MM, Kesler SR, et al. Estimating individual contribution from group-based structural correlation networks. NeuroImage. 2015; 120: 274\u2013284.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.07.006"},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Den Heuvel MP, Sporns O. Network hubs in the human brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2013; 17: 683\u2013696.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2013.09.012"},{"key":"ref83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gold AL, Sheridan MA, Peverill M, Busso DS, Lambert HK, Alves S, et al. Childhood abuse and reduced cortical thickness in brain regions involved in emotional processing. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 2016; 57: 1154\u20131164.","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12630"},{"key":"ref84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Besteher B, Gaser C, Spalthoff R, Nenadi\u0107 I. Associations between urban upbringing and cortical thickness and gyrification. Journal of Psychiatric Research. 2017; 95: 114\u2013120.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2017.08.012"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barch DM, Albaugh MD, Avenevoli S, Chang L, Clark DB, Glantz MD, et al. Demographic, physical and mental health assessments in the adolescent brain and cognitive development study: Rationale and description. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. 2018; 32: 55\u201366.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2017.10.010"},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bechara A. Decision making, impulse control and loss of willpower to resist drugs: a neurocognitive perspective. Nature Neuroscience. 2005; 8: 1458\u20131463.","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1584"},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou Y, Lin F, Du Y, Qin L, Zhao Z, Xu J, et al. Gray matter abnormalities in Internet addiction: a voxel-based morphometry study. European Journal of Radiology. 2011; 79: 92\u201395.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejrad.2009.10.025"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong G, Devito EE, Du X, Cui Z. Impaired inhibitory control in \u2018internet addiction disorder\u2019: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Psychiatry Research. 2012; 203: 153\u2013158.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2012.02.001"},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong G, Hu Y, Lin X. Reward\/punishment sensitivities among internet addicts: Implications for their addictive behaviors. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 2013; 46: 139\u2013145.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2013.07.007"},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allegri RF, Taragano FE, Krupitzki H, Serrano CM, Dillon C, Sarasola D, et al. Role of cognitive reserve in progression from mild cognitive impairment to dementia. Dementia & Neuropsychologia. 2010; 4: 28\u201334.","DOI":"10.1590\/S1980-57642010DN40100005"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spitzer M. Digitale Demenz. Nervenheilkunde. 2012; 31: 493\u2013497.","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1628243"},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gajewski RR. Pitfalls of E-education: From multimedia to digital dementia? Proceedings of the 2016 Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems. 2016; 8: 913\u2013920.","DOI":"10.15439\/2016F356"},{"key":"ref93","unstructured":"Moledina S, Khoja A. Letter to the Editor: Digital Dementia-is Smart Technology Making us Dumb? Ochsner Journal. 2018; 18: 12."},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zimmerman FJ, Christakis DA, Meltzoff AN. Television and DVD\/video viewing in children younger than 2 years. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 2007; 161: 473\u2013479.","DOI":"10.1001\/archpedi.161.5.473"},{"key":"ref95","unstructured":"Christakis DA, Zimmerman FJ. The Elephant in the Living Room: Make Television Work for Your Kids. Rodale Books: USA. 2006."},{"key":"ref96","unstructured":"Purcell K. 10 things to know about how teens use technology. 2013. Available at: https:\/\/www.pewinternet.org\/2013\/07\/10\/10-things-to-know-about-how-teens-usetechnology\/ (Accessed: 10 July 2013)."},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Dijck J. Mediated Memories in the Digital Age. Stanford University Press: USA. 2007.","DOI":"10.1515\/9780804779517"},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Squire LR, Zola SM. Episodic memory, semantic memory, and amnesia. Hippocampus. 1998; 8: 205\u2013211.","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1098-1063(1998)8:3<205::AID-HIPO3>3.0.CO;2-I"},{"key":"ref99","unstructured":"O\u2019Gorman M. Taking care of digital dementia. 2015. Available at: https:\/\/journals.uvic.ca\/index.php\/ctheory\/article\/view\/15128 (Accessed: 18 February 2015)."},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christakis DA. The effects of infant media usage: what do we know and what should we learn? Acta Paediatrica. 2009; 98: 8\u201316.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2008.01027.x"},{"key":"ref101","unstructured":"Balota DA, Faust M. Attention in dementia of the Alzheimer\u2019s type. Handbook of Neuropsychology. 2001; 6: 51\u201380."},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie H, Mayo N, Koski L. Predictors of Future Cognitive Decline in Persons with Mild Cognitive Impairment. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders. 2011; 32: 308\u2013317.","DOI":"10.1159\/000334996"},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McEwen BS. Brain on stress: how the social environment gets under the skin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2012; 109: 17180\u201317185.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1121254109"},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sharp ES, Gatz M. The relationship between education and dementia an updated systematic review. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders. 2011; 25: 289\u2013304.","DOI":"10.1097\/WAD.0b013e318211c83c"},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Laurson KR, Eisenmann JC, Welk GJ, Wickel EE, Gentile DA, Walsh DA. Combined influence of physical activity and screen time recommendations on childhood overweight. Journal of Pediatrics. 2008; 153: 209\u2013214.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2008.02.042"},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng ST. Cognitive reserve and the prevention of dementia: the role of physical and cognitive activities. Current Psychiatry Reports. 2016; 18: 85.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-016-0721-2"},{"key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kempermann G, Fabel K, Ehninger D, Babu H, Leal-Galicia P, Garthe A, et al. Why and how physical activity promotes experience-induced brain plasticity. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2010; 4: 189.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2010.00189"},{"key":"ref108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Churchill JD, Galvez R, Colcombe S, Swain RA, Kramer AF, Greenough WT. Exercise, experience and the aging brain. Neurobiology of Aging. 2002; 23: 941\u2013955.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0197-4580(02)00028-3"},{"key":"ref109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mueller PA, Oppenheimer DM. The pen is mightier than the keyboard: Advantages of longhand over laptop note taking. Psychological Science. 2014; 25: 1159\u20131168.","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797614524581"},{"key":"ref110","unstructured":"Redfoot D, Feinberg L, Houser A. The Aging of the Baby Boom and Growing Care Gap: A Look at Future Declines in the Availability of Family Caregivers. AARP Public Policy Institute: Washington, D.C. 2013."},{"key":"ref111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schulz R, Beach SR. Caregiving as a Risk Factor for Mortality: the Caregiver Health Effects Study. Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 1999; 282: 2215\u20132219.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.282.23.2215"},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00f6rensen S, Duberstein P, Gill D, Pinquart M. Dementia care: mental health effects, intervention strategies, and clinical implications. The Lancet Neurology. 2006; 5: 961\u2013973.","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(06)70599-3"},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vitaliano PP, Zhang J, Scanlan JM. Is caregiving hazardous to one\u2019s physical health? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin. 2003: 129: 946.","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.129.6.946"},{"key":"ref114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wimo A, Guerchet M, Ali GC, Wu YT, Prina AM, Winblad B, et al. The worldwide costs of dementia 2015 and comparisons with 2020. Alzheimer\u2019s and Dementia. 2017; 13: 1\u20137.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2016.07.150"},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El-Hayek YH, Wiley RE, Khoury CP, Daya RP, Ballard C, Evans AR, et al. Tip of the Iceberg: Assessing the Global Socioeconomic Costs of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Related Dementias and Strategic Implications for Stakeholders. Journal of Alzheimer\u2019s Diseases. 2019; 70: 323\u2013341.","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-190426"},{"key":"ref116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christakis DA. The effects of infant media usage: what do we know and what should we learn. Acta Paediatrica. 2008; 98: 8\u201316.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1651-2227.2008.01027.x"},{"key":"ref117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shakya HB, Christakis NA. Association of Facebook use with compromised well-being: a longitudinal study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2017; 18: 203\u2013211.","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kww189"},{"key":"ref118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tromholt M. The Facebook experiment: Quitting Facebook leads to higher levels of well-being. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking. 2016; 19: 661\u2013666.","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2016.0259"},{"key":"ref119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kross E, Verduyn P, Demiralp E, Park J, Lee DS, Lin N, et al. Facebook use predicts declines in subjective well-being in young adults. PLoS ONE. 2013; 8: e69841.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0069841"},{"key":"ref120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Twenge JM. The age of anxiety? Birth cohort changes in anxiety and neuroticism, 1952\u20131993. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2000; 79: 1007\u20131021.","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0022-3514.79.6.1007"},{"key":"ref121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perrault AA, Bayer L, Peuvrier M, Afyouni A, Ghisletta P, Brockmann C, et al. Reducing the use of screen electronic devices in the evening is associated with improved sleep and daytime vigilance in adolescents. Sleep. 2019; 42: 125.","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsz125"},{"key":"ref122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Menezes J, Das Neves BHS, Gon\u00e7alves R, Benetti F, Mello-Carpes PB. Maternal deprivation impairs memory and cognitive flexibility, effect that is avoided by environmental enrichment. Behavioural Brain Research. 2020; 381: 112468.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2020.112468"},{"key":"ref123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francis DD, Diorio J, Plotsky PM, Meaney MJ. Environmental enrichment reverses the effects of maternal separation on stress reactivity. Journal of Neuroscience. 2002; 22: 7840\u20137843.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-18-07840.2002"},{"key":"ref124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yeykelis L, Cummings JJ, Reeves B. Multitasking on a single device: Arousal and the frequency, anticipation, and prediction of switching between media content on a computer. Journal of Communication. 2014; 64: 167\u2013192.","DOI":"10.1111\/jcom.12070"},{"key":"ref125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Christakis DA, Ramirez JSB, Ramirez JM. Overstimulation of newborn mice leads to behavioral differences and deficits in cognitive performance. Scientific Reports. 2012; 2: 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1038\/srep00546"},{"key":"ref126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smoker TJ, Murphy CE, Rockwell AK. Comparing memory for handwriting versus typing. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. 2009; 53: 1744\u20131747.","DOI":"10.1518\/107118109X12524444081755"},{"key":"ref127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maguire EA, Gadian DG, Johnsrude IS, Good CD, Ashburner J, Frackowiak RS, et al. Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2000; 97: 4398\u20134403.","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.070039597"},{"key":"ref128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruscheweyh R, Willemer C, Kr\u00fcger K, Duning T, Warnecke T, Sommer J, et al. Physical activity and memory functions: an interventional study. Neurobiology of Aging. 2011; 32: 1304\u20131319.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2009.08.001"},{"key":"ref129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colcombe SJ, Erickson KI, Scalf PE, Kim JS, Prakash R, McAuley E, et al. Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. Journals of Gerontology. 2006; 61: 1166\u20131170.","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/61.11.1166"},{"key":"ref130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robb CA, Moody B, Abdel-Ghany M. College student persistence to degree: The burden of debt. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice. 2012; 13: 431\u2013456.","DOI":"10.2190\/CS.13.4.b"},{"key":"ref131","unstructured":"Botvin GJ. The Health Consequences of Smoking-50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. CDC Web Archive: USA. 2014."}],"container-title":["Journal of Integrative Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.imrpress.com\/journal\/JIN\/21\/1\/10.31083\/j.jin2101028","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]],"date-time":"2024-11-27T15:42:11Z","timestamp":1732722131000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.imrpress.com\/journal\/JIN\/21\/1\/10.31083\/j.jin2101028"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"references-count":131,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022]]}},"alternative-id":["S0219-6352(22)00288-1"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.31083\/j.jin2101028","relation":{},"ISSN":["0219-6352","1757-448X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0219-6352","type":"print"},{"value":"1757-448X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"article-number":"28"}}