{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T13:12:51Z","timestamp":1754485971387},"reference-count":128,"publisher":"University of Toronto Press Inc. (UTPress)","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Canadian Bulletin of Medical History"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> During the early 1950s, Canada\u2019s efforts to prevent polio became heavily influenced by developments in the United States. America\u2019s foremost polio charity, the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, sponsored University of Pittsburgh researcher Dr. William McD. Hammon to evaluate the efficacy of a human blood fraction, gamma globulin (GG), to prevent paralytic polio. When the resulting clinical trial data appeared to show that the blood fraction offered some protection against the disease, Canadians embraced the concept for reasons of historical trust, parental demand, and public health pragmatism. They established Canada\u2019s first national immunization program to fight polio before the vaccine, as well as developed a plan to produce, evaluate, and distribute GG to epidemic areas. Despite being an expensive enterprise for a geographically vast and sparsely populated nation, Canada\u2019s GG program was extended to citizens and it became an important response to polio before a safe and effective vaccine was licensed. Although the blood fraction was not as effective at preventing polio paralysis as researchers had anticipated, its systematic use reveals how Canadian health leaders drew on transnational relationships to reduce the incidence of disease. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3138\/cbmh.365-052019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,13]],"date-time":"2019-09-13T20:33:02Z","timestamp":1568406782000},"page":"444-468","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Borders and Blood Fractions: Gamma Globulin and Canada\u2019s Fight against Polio, 1950\u201355"],"prefix":"10.3138","volume":"36","author":[{"given":"Stephen E.","family":"Mawdsley","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Stephen E. Mawdsley \u2013 University of Bristol Originally submitted 17 August 2018; accepted 2 July 2019."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1696","reference":[{"key":"fn1","unstructured":"Curtis F. Culp to Raymond H. Barrows, 13 July 1953, March of Dimes Archives [MDA], Surveys and Studies Records, S3: GG FT, Box 3."},{"key":"fn2","unstructured":"\u201cA Canadian Gesture of Good Friendship to the U.S.\u201d Springfield Leader, 29 September 1953, 1."},{"key":"fn3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1464","DOI":"10.1042\/bj0311464","volume":"31","author":"Arne Tiselius","year":"1937","journal-title":"Biochemical Journal"},{"key":"fn4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-8486(99)00017-5","volume":"30","author":"Angela Creager","year":"1999","journal-title":"Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences"},{"key":"fn5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1945.02860030016004","volume":"127","author":"J. Stokes","year":"1945","journal-title":"Journal of the American Medical Association"},{"key":"fn6","author":"Stephen E. Mawdsley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Selling Science: Polio and the Promise of Gamma Globulin"},{"key":"fn7","first-page":"277","volume":"13","author":"Christopher J. Rutty","year":"1995","journal-title":"Canadian Bulletin of Medical History\/Bulletin canadien d\u2019histoire m\u00e9decine"},{"key":"fn8","first-page":"I1","volume":"96","author":"Christopher J. Rutty","year":"2005","journal-title":"Canadian Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"fn9","first-page":"95","volume":"76","author":"Russell F. Taylor","year":"1990","journal-title":"Polio \u201953: A Memorial for Russell Frederick Taylor"},{"key":"fn10","author":"Susan L. Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"Toxic Exposures: Mustard Gas and the Health Consequences of World War II in the United States"},{"key":"fn11","author":"Jane S. Smith","year":"1990","journal-title":"Patenting the Sun: Polio and the Salk Vaccine"},{"key":"fn12","first-page":"7","author":"John R. Paul","year":"1971","journal-title":"A History of Poliomyelitis"},{"key":"fn13","author":"David Oshinsky","year":"2005","journal-title":"Polio: An American Story"},{"key":"fn14","first-page":"1","volume":"45","author":"Thomas Francis","year":"1955","journal-title":"American Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"fn15","unstructured":"\u201cSpread of Polio Causes Dual Ban,\u201d Didsbury Pioneer, 19 August 1953, 4."},{"key":"fn16","unstructured":"\u201cDoctor Outlines Eight Rules to Combat Poliomyelitis,\u201d Gleichen Call, 6 August 1952, 2."},{"key":"fn17","first-page":"70","author":"Oshinsky","journal-title":"Polio: An American Story"},{"key":"fn18","unstructured":"Oshinsky, \u201cThe First Epidemics,\u201d 8."},{"key":"fn19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195380590.001.0001","author":"Naomi Rogers","year":"2013","journal-title":"Polio Wars: Sister Kenny and the Golden Age of American Medicine"},{"key":"fn20","unstructured":"Oshinsky, \u201cThe First Epidemics,\u201d 8."},{"key":"fn21","first-page":"55","author":"Victor Cohn","year":"1955","journal-title":"Four Billion Dimes"},{"key":"fn22","first-page":"170","author":"David L. Sills","year":"1957","journal-title":"The Volunteers"},{"key":"#cr-split#-fn23.1","unstructured":"\"Polio Medical Expense Insurance,\" Crossfield Chronicle, 5 January 1951, 3"},{"key":"#cr-split#-fn23.2","unstructured":"\"Pays up to $7,500 for Polio,\" Didsbury Pioneer, 13 August 1952, 2."},{"key":"fn24","unstructured":"Smith and Mawdsley, \u201cAlberta Advantage,\u201d 24."},{"key":"fn25","first-page":"300","volume":"73","year":"1955","journal-title":"Canadian Medical Association Journal"},{"key":"fn26","first-page":"48","volume":"75","author":"Andrew J. Rhodes","year":"1956","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"fn27","unstructured":"Bentley Historical Library, Dr. Thomas Francis Jr. Collection, Box 17; MDA, Government Relations (Foreign), Box 1."},{"key":"fn28","author":"Mawdsley","journal-title":"Selling Science"},{"key":"fn29","author":"Mawdsley","journal-title":"23\u201326"},{"key":"fn30","author":"Smith","journal-title":"Patenting the Sun"},{"key":"fn31","first-page":"34","author":"Mawdsley","journal-title":"Selling Science"},{"key":"fn32","unstructured":"\u201cNew Discovery Hoped to Be Polio Protection,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 27 September 1951, 14."},{"key":"fn33","author":"Mawdsley","journal-title":"Selling Science"},{"key":"fn34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"739","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1952.03680080001001","volume":"150","author":"William M. Hammon","year":"1952","journal-title":"Journal of the American Medical Association"},{"key":"fn35","unstructured":"\u201cTests Show Injections Protect Children From Paralytic Polio,\u201d El Paso Herald-Post, 22 October 1952, 1."},{"key":"fn36","author":"Mawdsley","journal-title":"Selling Science"},{"key":"fn37","author":"Rex Thomas","journal-title":"Lethbridge Herald"},{"key":"fn38","unstructured":"\u201cMiracle Medicine Hopes to Blunt Polio Epidemics,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 27 May 1953, 12."},{"key":"fn39","author":"Greg Donaghy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Winnipeg Free Press"},{"key":"fn40","unstructured":"\u201cCanada to Test U.S.Developed Polio Treatment,\u201d 21."},{"key":"fn41","unstructured":"B.D.B. Layton to G.F. Davidson, 15 July 1953, Library and Archives Canada [LAC], RG29 199, Epidemiology: Diseases \u2013 Poliomyelitis\u00a0\u2013 Gamma Globulin, 1953."},{"key":"fn42","unstructured":"Minutes of the FGGAC, 5 January 1953, LAC, RG29 199, Epidemiology: Diseases \u2013 Poliomyelitis \u2013 Gamma Globulin, 1953; \u201cBlood Donor Clinic Here in November,\u201d Didsbury Pioneer, 18\u00a0November 1953, 7."},{"key":"#cr-split#-fn43.1","unstructured":"\"Polio Serum Not Being Sold for Exorbitant Price,\" Brandon Daily Sun, 19 August 1953, 5"},{"key":"#cr-split#-fn43.2","unstructured":"\"To Test Gama Globulin [sic] as Polio Protection,\" Brandon Daily Sun, 29 January 1953, 11."},{"key":"fn44","unstructured":"William Hammon, P.H. Kiem, and Iris Kiem, \u201cPreliminary Report on Evaluation of Gamma Globulin in the Control of Poliomyelitis among Household Contacts during the Winnipeg Epidemic in 1953,\u201d 23 August 1953, MDA, Government Relations (Foreign), Box 1, Series 1: Country Files, Canada, Polio Epidemic, 1942\u201353."},{"key":"fn45","unstructured":"\u201cGamma Globulin Distribution,\u201d 26 August 1953, LAC, RG29 199, Epidemiology: Diseases \u2013 Poliomyelitis \u2013 Gamma Globulin, 1953."},{"key":"fn46","unstructured":"LAC, GG, Box 204, Epidemiology: Gamma Globulin Advisory Committee, 1953\u201356; LAC, GG, Box 199, Epidemiology: Diseases\u00a0\u2013 Poliomyelitis \u2013 Gamma Globulin, 1952\u201353; LAC, GG, Box 199, Epidemiology: Diseases \u2013 Poliomyelitis \u2013 Gamma Globulin, 1953; LAC, GG, Box 201, Epidemiology: Diseases \u2013 Poliomyelitis \u2013 Gamma Globulin, 1955."},{"key":"fn47","first-page":"390","volume":"68","year":"1953","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"fn48","unstructured":"\u201cUS Doctor Tells Convention Serum for Polio Discovered but Risks Prohibit Its Use,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 20 June 1953, 9."},{"key":"fn49","unstructured":"\u201cTo Test Gama Globulin [sic] as Polio Protection.\u201d"},{"key":"fn50","unstructured":"\u201cPolio Serum May Be Story of the Year,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 1\u00a0October 1953, 2."},{"key":"fn51","unstructured":"\u201cMay Be Polio Cure If Parents Will Take a Chance,\u201d Lethbridge Herald, 19 April 1953, 20."},{"key":"fn52","unstructured":"\u201cBlood Donor Clinic Here in November\u201d, 7."},{"key":"fn53","unstructured":"Mrs. George Black to B.D.B. Layton, 23 June 1953, LAC, RG29 199, Epidemiology: Diseases \u2013 Poliomyelitis \u2013 Gamma Globulin, 1953."},{"key":"fn54","unstructured":"Captain E. Ritch to B.D.B. Layton, \u201cPoliomyelitis \u2013 Whitehorse, YT,\u201d 4\u00a0June 1953, LAC, RG29 199, Epidemiology: Diseases\u00a0\u2013 Poliomyelitis\u00a0\u2013 Gamma Globulin, 1953; F.G. Smith to H.A.\u00a0Young, 4\u00a0June 1953, LAC, RG29 199, Epidemiology: Diseases \u2013 Poliomyelitis\u00a0\u2013 Gamma Globulin, 1953."},{"key":"fn55","first-page":"20","volume":"66","author":"Leah Morton","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brandon Daily Sun"},{"key":"fn56","author":"Liz Katynski","journal-title":"Winnipeg Free Press"},{"key":"fn57","unstructured":"\u201cPreventative for Polio Available,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 13 July 1953, 1."},{"key":"fn58","first-page":"185","volume":"45","author":"R.G. Cadham","year":"1954","journal-title":"CJPH"},{"key":"fn59","unstructured":"Hammon, Kiem, and Kiem, \u201cPreliminary Report on Evaluation of Gamma Globulin.\u201d"},{"key":"fn60","unstructured":"M.R. Elliott to B.D.B. Layton, 25 August 1953, LAC, RG29 199, Epidemiology: Diseases \u2013 Poliomyelitis \u2013 Gamma Globulin, 1952\u201353."},{"key":"fn61","unstructured":"\u201cMulligan Would Seek U.S. Serum,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 5 August 1953, 1."},{"key":"fn62","unstructured":"\u201cBlood Donors Urgently Needed,\u201d Manitoba Leader, 26 November 1953, 1."},{"key":"fn63","unstructured":"\u201cBrandon Urged to Give Blood to Combat Ravages of Polio,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 7 December 1953, 1."},{"key":"fn64","unstructured":"\u201cBrandon Urged to Give Blood,\u201d 1."},{"key":"fn65","unstructured":"\u201cCity Warned against Polio Serum Pedlars,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 10\u00a0August 1953, 1, 9."},{"key":"fn66","unstructured":"\u201cCity Warned against Polio Serum Pedlars,\u201d 1, 9."},{"key":"fn67","unstructured":"\u201cPicked Up in Passing,\u201d Lethbridge Herald, 3 August 1953, 4."},{"key":"fn68","unstructured":"\u201cLetters to the Editor: Gamma Globulin,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 16\u00a0September 1953, 24."},{"key":"fn69","unstructured":"\u201cManitoba Polio Count Near Mark,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 23 August 1954, 1."},{"key":"fn70","unstructured":"\u201cLabor Asks Govt. Control of Polio Drug,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 3\u00a0August 1953, 6."},{"key":"fn71","unstructured":"\u201cPolio Serum Not Being Sold for Exorbitant Price,\u201d 5."},{"key":"fn72","unstructured":"\u201cLabor Asks Govt. Control of Polio Drug,\u201d 6."},{"key":"fn73","unstructured":"\u201cSale of Polio Serum Ruled Legitimate,\u201d Lethbridge Herald, 8 August 1953, 11."},{"key":"fn74","unstructured":"\u201cManitoba Polio Count Near Mark,\u201d 1."},{"key":"#cr-split#-fn75.1","unstructured":"\"Polio Cost Province $485,000, Says Bell in Defence of Govt.\" Winnipeg Free Press, 16 February 1954, 7"},{"key":"#cr-split#-fn75.2","unstructured":"Minutes of the FGGAC, 5 March 1954, LAC, RG29 204, Epidemiology: Gamma Globulin Advisory Committee, 1953-56."},{"key":"fn76","unstructured":"\u201cHealth Deputy Hits Press for \u2018Overplaying\u2019 Polio,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 15 March 1954, 1."},{"key":"fn77","unstructured":"\u201cBell Defends Polio Action of Province,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 16\u00a0February 1954, 2."},{"key":"fn78","unstructured":"\u201cPolio Death Toll: Eighty-Eight Lives Lost So Far This Year in Canada,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 25 August 1953, 1."},{"key":"fn79","first-page":"16","author":"Taylor","journal-title":"Polio \u201953"},{"key":"fn80","unstructured":"\u201cNew Outbreak of Polio in Alberta Caused Small Panic among Edmonton Parents,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 18 November 1953, 9."},{"key":"fn81","unstructured":"\u201cBlood Donor Clinic Here in November,\u201d 7."},{"key":"fn82","author":"Editorial","journal-title":"Recorder"},{"key":"fn83","unstructured":"\u201cTo Hold Blood Donor Clinic Here on December 10th,\u201d Didsbury Pioneer, 2 December 1953, 1."},{"key":"fn84","unstructured":"\u201cTo Hold Blood Donor Clinic Here on December 10th,\u201d 1."},{"key":"fn85","unstructured":"\u201cTo Hold Blood Donor Clinic Here on December 10th,\u201d 1."},{"key":"fn86","unstructured":"\u201cStill Need Donors for Clinic,\u201d Lethbridge Herald, 5 March 1954, 9."},{"key":"fn87","unstructured":"\u201cWar Declaration Coming Start Legion Appeal,\u201d Medicine Hat News, 12 January 1954, 3."},{"key":"fn88","unstructured":"\u201cLegion Polio Campaign to Continue Through Feb.\u201d Didsbury Pioneer, 10 February 1954, 1."},{"key":"fn89","unstructured":"\u201cLegion Polio Campaign to Continue Through Feb.\u201d 1"},{"key":"fn90","unstructured":"\u201cDonor Enrollment Office,\u201d The Gateway, 4 February 1954, 2."},{"key":"fn91","author":"Elise A. Corbet","year":"1990","journal-title":"Frontiers of Medicine: A History of Medical Education and Research at the University of Alberta"},{"key":"fn92","unstructured":"\u201cThink! \u2013 Act!\u201d The Gateway, 14 January 1954, 2."},{"key":"fn93","unstructured":"\u201cThink! \u2013 Act!,\u201d 2."},{"key":"fn94","first-page":"125","author":"Elise A. Corbet","journal-title":"Frontiers of Medicine"},{"key":"fn95","unstructured":"\u201cDonor Enrollment Office,\u201d 2."},{"key":"fn96","unstructured":"\u201cThree-Year-Old Jeanie,\u201d Didsbury Pioneer, 2 June 1954, 3."},{"key":"fn97","unstructured":"\u201cRed Cross Meets Blood Quota for Gamma Globulin,\u201d Medicine Hat News, 22 February 1954, 3."},{"key":"fn98","unstructured":"Minutes of the FGGAC, 5 March 1954."},{"key":"fn99","unstructured":"Minutes of the FGGAC, 5 March 1954."},{"key":"fn100","unstructured":"\u201cN.Y. Officials Stress Polio Serum Unproved,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 5\u00a0September 1953, 34."},{"key":"fn101","unstructured":"\u201cFind Results Polio Serum Inconclusive,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 24\u00a0February 1954, 1."},{"key":"fn102","unstructured":"\u201cGamma Globulin May Be Too Slow, Experts Warn,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 21 September 1953, 4."},{"key":"fn103","unstructured":"\u201cBuy Enough Vaccine to Treat 29,000,\u201d Lethbridge Herald, 24 June 1954, 2."},{"key":"fn104","unstructured":"\u201cAnti-Polio Treatment Costs High,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 15 October 1953, 1, 31."},{"key":"fn105","unstructured":"\u201cGamma Globulin Effective against Poliomyelitis,\u201d Roblin Review and Togo News, 5 July 1954, 4."},{"key":"fn106","unstructured":"\u201cCanadian Has Good Word for Polio Serum,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 25\u00a0February 1954, 9."},{"key":"fn107","unstructured":"Minutes of the FGGAC, 27 October 1954, LAC, RG29 204, Epidemiology: Gamma Globulin Advisory Committee, 1953\u201356; Minutes of the FGGAC, 5 March 1954."},{"key":"#cr-split#-fn108.1","unstructured":"\"Polio Assumes New Prominence Martin Declares,\" Lethbridge Herald, 4 December 1953, 16"},{"key":"#cr-split#-fn108.2","unstructured":"\"Federal Aid: Provinces to Have Larger Supply Anti-Polio Serum,\" Brandon Daily Sun, 3 December 1953, 1."},{"key":"fn109","unstructured":"\u201cFederal Aid: Provinces to Have Larger Supply Anti-Polio Serum,\u201d 1."},{"key":"fn110","unstructured":"\u201cPolio Assumes New Prominence Martin Declares,\u201d 16."},{"key":"fn111","unstructured":"Paul Martin, \u201cFirst National Report on Gamma Globulin,\u201d 1 October 1953, LAC, RG29 204, Epidemiology: Gamma Globulin Advisory Committee, 1953\u201356; \u201cPolio Serum May Be Story of the Year,\u201d 2."},{"key":"fn112","unstructured":"\u201cFederal Aid: Provinces to Have Larger Supply Anti-Polio Serum,\u201d 1."},{"key":"fn113","unstructured":"\u201cAnti-Polio Serum,\u201d Lethbridge Herald, 7 July 1954, 14."},{"key":"fn114","unstructured":"\u201cGamma Globulin Soon Will Be Available on Doctor\u2019s Prescription,\u201d Lethbridge Herald, 30 June 1954, 19."},{"key":"fn115","unstructured":"\u201cCity Stores Now Selling Polio Serum,\u201d Winnipeg Free Press, 29 June 1954, 1."},{"key":"fn116","unstructured":"\u201cGamma Globulin \u2013 What Is It?\u201d Chronicle, 17 June 1954, 8."},{"key":"fn117","unstructured":"\u201cHow the Blood Transfusion Service Operates in Saskatchewan,\u201d Chronicle, 4 March 1954, 2."},{"key":"fn118","unstructured":"\u201cCannot Protect All Children with Gamma Globulin,\u201d Lethbridge Herald, 22 February 1954, 16."},{"key":"fn119","unstructured":"\u201cGamma Globulin Still Not Proven,\u201d Chronicle, 22 July 1954, 3."},{"key":"fn120","unstructured":"\u201cHealth League Backs Doctor in Decision,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 17\u00a0July 1954, 5."},{"key":"fn121","unstructured":"\u201cSalk Vaccine against Polio Has Unlimited Possibilities,\u201d Brandon Daily Sun, 9 September 1954, 12."},{"key":"fn122","unstructured":"Smith and Mawdsley, \u201cAlberta Advantage,\u201d 89."},{"key":"fn123","unstructured":"Smith and Mawdsley, 89."},{"key":"fn124","author":"David Oshinsky","journal-title":"Polio: An American Story"}],"container-title":["Canadian Bulletin of Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/utpjournals.press\/doi\/pdf\/10.3138\/cbmh.365-052019","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,21]],"date-time":"2022-07-21T00:52:53Z","timestamp":1658364773000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/utpjournals.press\/doi\/10.3138\/cbmh.365-052019"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]},"references-count":128,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.3138\/cbmh.365-052019"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3138\/cbmh.365-052019","relation":{},"ISSN":["0823-2105","2371-0179"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0823-2105","type":"print"},{"value":"2371-0179","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}}}