{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,12]],"date-time":"2024-08-12T09:40:19Z","timestamp":1723455619165},"reference-count":116,"publisher":"University of Toronto Press Inc. (UTPress)","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Canadian Bulletin of Medical History"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The Association des m\u00e9decins de langue fran\u00e7aise d\u2019Am\u00e9rique du Nord (AMLFAN) was founded in Qu\u00e9bec at the turn of the twentieth century. The physicians who convened at the Association between 1902 and 1910 shared a concern for the degeneration of the French-Canadian \u201crace\u201d under the effects of alcoholism, tuberculosis, and syphilis. For hygienists such as Arthur Rousseau and Charles-Narcisse Valin, this state of degeneration called for hygienic measures that would help regenerate and improve the French-Canadian race. While their suggestion that marriages be matched scientifically in order to prevent the transmission of hereditary and acquired defects from parent to offspring may be reminiscent of eugenics, French-Canadian physicians seemed to have no knowledge of Sir Francis Galton \u2013 eugenics\u2019 \u201cfounding father\u201d \u2013 and his work on the topic. This article compares French-Canadian eugenic discourses with Galtonian eugenics in order to shed light on the particularities of the French-Canadian case.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3138\/cbmh.401-112019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,21]],"date-time":"2020-08-21T23:40:35Z","timestamp":1598053235000},"page":"395-426","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["\u201cUne plus brillante moisson de citoyens sains et robustes\u201d: Eugenic Discourses in French Canada (1902\u201310)"],"prefix":"10.3138","volume":"37","author":[{"given":"Vincent","family":"Auffrey","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vincent Auffrey \u2013 Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology, University of Toronto"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1696","reference":[{"unstructured":"Arthur Rousseau, \u201cLa m\u00e9decine et la race,\u201d in Albert Paquet, ed.Quatri\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s de l\u2019Association des m\u00e9decins de langue fran\u00e7aise d\u2019Am\u00e9rique du Nord tenu \u00e0 Qu\u00e9bec, les 20, 21 et 22 juillet, 1908(Qu\u00e9bec: Imp. LaFlamme & Proulx, 1910), 134.","key":"fn1"},{"unstructured":"To be clear, Rousseau used the words \u201crace\u201d and \u201cnation\u201d almost synonymously. Given the content of his speech, we can deduce that his conception of race was imbued with both biological and cultural significance. It referred to a people of common ancestry, history, language, and religion. On the tension between biological and cultural notions of race in Qu\u00e9bec, see Jeffery Vacante,National Manhood and the Creation of Modern Quebec(Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2017), 16\u201317, 71\u201372.","key":"fn2"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, \u201cLa m\u00e9decine et la race,\u201d 137. The entire quotation reads: \u201cRegrettons-nous les temps de barbarie o\u00f9 les peuples supprimaient les \u00e9l\u00e9ments de leur faiblesse par le sacrifice des d\u00e9sh\u00e9rit\u00e9s de la nature? Assur\u00e9ment non! Le monde ne saurait plus vivre d\u00e9sormais sans les conceptions de justice sup\u00e9rieure et de solidarit\u00e9 humaine que le christianisme lui a r\u00e9v\u00e9l\u00e9es.\u201d","key":"fn3"},{"unstructured":"As a case in point, Denis Goulet and J\u00e9r\u00f4me Boivin allude to this in their recent biography of Rousseau. Denis Goulet and J\u00e9r\u00f4me Boivin, \u201cROUSSEAU, ARTHUR (baptis\u00e9 Jean-Marie-Arthur),\u201d inDictionnaire biographique du Canada, vol. 16, Universit\u00e9 Laval\/University of Toronto, 2003\u2013, accessed 3 November 2019, http:\/\/www.biographi.ca\/fr\/bio\/rousseau_arthur_16F.html.","key":"fn4"},{"unstructured":"Diane B. Paul and James Moore, \u201cThe Darwinian Context: Evolution and Inheritance,\u201d in Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine, eds.The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics(New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 36.","key":"fn5"},{"unstructured":"See Anne Carol, Histoire de l'eug\u00e9nisme en France : Les m\u00e9decins et la procr\u00e9ation, XIXe-XXe si\u00e8cle (Paris: \u00c9ditions du Seuil, 1995), 71-76","key":"#cr-split#-fn6.1"},{"unstructured":"Anatole Georgin, \"La science eug\u00e9nique ou 'l'\u00e9levage de l'homme' : pour l'am\u00e9lioration de la race humaine,\" Le Pays (Montreal), 10 August 1912, 3","key":"#cr-split#-fn6.2"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albert Laurendeau, \"Premier Congr\u00e8s International d'Eug\u00e9nique,\" Le Pays (Montreal), 14 September 1912, 6. The word \"eugenics\" was originally translated into French in 1886 by Georges Vacher de Lapouge, but failed to gain traction in France until much later. Pierre-Andr\u00e9 Taguieff, \"L'introduction de l'eug\u00e9nisme en France: du mot \u00e0 l'id\u00e9e,\" Mots. Les langages du politique 26 (1991): 23-45.","key":"#cr-split#-fn6.3","DOI":"10.3406\/mots.1991.1592"},{"unstructured":"McLaren devotes a mere five pages to the topic. Only one published article examines eugenics in Qu\u00e9bec. See Angus McLaren, Our Own Master Race: Eugenics in Canada, 1885-1945 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 150-54","key":"#cr-split#-fn7.1"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sebastian Normandin, \"Eugenics, McGill, and the Catholic Church in Montreal and Quebec: 1890-1942,\" Canadian Bulletin of Medical History\/Bulletin canadien d'histoire de la m\u00e9decine [CBMH\/BCHM] 15 (1998): 59-86","key":"#cr-split#-fn7.2","DOI":"10.3138\/cbmh.15.1.59"},{"unstructured":"Carolyn Strange and Jennifer A. Stephen, \"Eugenics in Canada: A Checkered History, 1850s-1990s,\" in Alison Bashford and Philippa Levine, eds. The Oxford Handbook of the History of Eugenics (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 523-28.","key":"#cr-split#-fn7.3"},{"unstructured":"See Ian Robert Dowbiggin,Keeping America Sane: Psychiatry and Eugenics in the United States and Canada, 1880\u20131940(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997); Erika Dyck,Facing Eugenics: Reproduction, Sterilization, and the Politics of Choice(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013); Claudia Malacrida,A Special Hell: Institutional Life in Alberta\u2019s Eugenic Years, (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2015).","key":"fn8"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"See, for instance, Leslie Baker, \"'A Visitation of Providence:' Public Health and Eugenic Reform in the Wake of the Halifax Disaster,\" CBMH\/BCHM 31 (2014): 99-122","key":"#cr-split#-fn9.1","DOI":"10.3138\/cbmh.31.1.99"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alex Deighton, \"The Nature of Eugenic Thought and Limits of Eugenic Practice in Interwar Saskatchewan,\" in Diane B. Paul, John Stenhouse, and Hamish G. Spencer, eds. Eugenics at the Edges of Empire: New Zealand, Australia, Canada and South Africa (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 63-84","key":"#cr-split#-fn9.2","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-64686-2_4"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.T.H. Connor, \"'For Her Own Safety and the Good of Society at Large': Eugenics, Sterilization, and Anglo-American Transnationalism in Newfoundland, 1928-1934,\" Acadiensis: Journal of the History of the Atlantic Region 48 (2019): 32-59.","key":"#cr-split#-fn9.3","DOI":"10.1353\/aca.2019.0002"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elizabeth C. Koester, \u201cAn Evil Hitherto Unchecked: Eugenics and the 1917 Ontario Royal Commission on the Care and Control of the Mentally Defective and Feeble-Minded,\u201dCBMH\/BCHM33 (2016): 74\u201376.","key":"fn10","DOI":"10.3138\/cbmh.33.1.59"},{"unstructured":"McLaren,Our Own Master Race, 150\u201354; Normandin, \u201cEugenics,\u201d 59\u201386. Denyse Baillargeon provides a more nuanced interpretation inUn Qu\u00e9bec en mal d\u2019enfants : la m\u00e9dicalisation de la maternit\u00e9, 1910\u20131970(Montr\u00e9al: \u00c9ditions du Remue-m\u00e9nage, 2004), 104\u2013105.","key":"fn11"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Galtonian eugenics not being archetypal was one of Mark B. Adams' main conclusions in The Wellborn Science. Mark B. Adams, \"Toward a Comparative History of Eugenics,\" in Mark B. Adams, ed. The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 217-18. The plurality of eugenics has since been emphasized by The Oxford Handbook's comprehensive account of eugenics in more than 20 countries. Bashford and Levine, The Oxford Handbook","key":"#cr-split#-fn12.1","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195053616.003.0006"},{"unstructured":"see also Cristoph Irmscher, \"Proto-Eugenic Thinking before Galton,\" Bulletin of the GHI 44 (2009): 83-88.","key":"#cr-split#-fn12.2"},{"unstructured":"SeeProblems in Eugenics: Papers Communicated to the First International Eugenics Congress Held at the University of London, July 24th to 30th, 1912(London: The Eugenics Education Society, 1912),vii\u2013ix; onpu\u00e9riculturesee Carol,Histoire de l\u2019eug\u00e9nisme en France, 45\u201351; onRassenhygiene, see Paul Weindling,Health, Race, and German Politics Between National Unification and Nazism, 1870\u20131945(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).","key":"fn13"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikolai Krementsov,With and without Galton: Vasilii Florinskii and the Fate of Eugenics in Russia(Cambridge: Open Book Publishers, 2018), 20.","key":"fn14","DOI":"10.11647\/OBP.0144.01"},{"unstructured":"Krementsov,With and without Galton, 4.","key":"fn15"},{"unstructured":"Mark B. Adams, \u201cEugenics in the History of Science,\u201d in Adams,The Wellborn Science, 6.","key":"fn16"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The French influence on Qu\u00e9bec physicians has been demonstrated, in the case of bacteriology, by Goulet and Keel. See Denis Goulet and Othmar Keel, \u201cLes hommes-relais de la bact\u00e9riologie en territoire qu\u00e9b\u00e9cois et l\u2019introduction de nouvelles pratiques diagnostiques et th\u00e9rapeutiques (1890\u20131920),\u201dRevue d\u2019histoire de l\u2019Am\u00e9rique fran\u00e7aise46 (1993): 417\u2013443. The author thanks Yves Gingras for recommending this paper.","key":"fn17","DOI":"10.7202\/305108ar"},{"unstructured":"Paul and Moore, \u201cThe Darwinian Context,\u201d 36.","key":"fn18"},{"unstructured":"Paul and Moore, 28\u201339. For more information on the EES, see Pauline M.H. Mazumdar,Eugenics, Human Genetics, and Human Failings: The Eugenics Sociery, Its Sources and Its Critics in Britain(New York: Routledge, 1992).","key":"fn19"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Francis Galton,Essays in Eugenics(London: The Eugenics Education Society, 1909), 2.","key":"fn20","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.168760"},{"unstructured":"Galton,Essays, 42. It should be noted, however, that Galton remained vague and unclear about the practical application of eugenics, since he believed too little was known on the topic.","key":"fn21"},{"unstructured":"Paul and Moore, \u201cThe Darwinian Context,\u201d 38.","key":"fn22"},{"unstructured":"Galton,Essays, 37\u201338. See also Daniel Pick,Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c. 1848\u2013c. 1918(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 189\u2013203.","key":"fn23"},{"unstructured":"Galton, 11\u201318.","key":"fn24"},{"unstructured":"Galton, 3\u20137.","key":"fn25"},{"unstructured":"Galton, 36.","key":"fn26"},{"unstructured":"Galton, 104.","key":"fn27"},{"unstructured":"Galton, 100.","key":"fn28"},{"unstructured":"See Guy Grenier,100 ans de m\u00e9decine francophone : Histoire de l\u2019Association des m\u00e9decins de langue fran\u00e7aise du Canada(Qu\u00e9bec: \u00c9ditions MultiMondes, 2002), 135\u201351.","key":"fn29"},{"unstructured":"Paul-Andr\u00e9 Linteau, Ren\u00e9 Durocher, and Jean-Claude Robert,Histoire du Qu\u00e9bec contemporain, Tome 1 : De la Conf\u00e9d\u00e9ration \u00e0 la crise(Montr\u00e9al: Bor\u00e9al, 1989), 35\u201340.","key":"fn30"},{"unstructured":"D. Brochu, \u201cIntroduction,\u201d in F.X. Jules Dorion, ed.Premier Congr\u00e8s de l\u2019Association des m\u00e9decins de langue fran\u00e7aise d\u2019Am\u00e9rique du Nord tenu \u00e0 Qu\u00e9bec les 25, 26 et 37 juin 1902(Qu\u00e9bec: J.A. K.LaFlamme, Imprimeur, 1903),ix.","key":"fn31"},{"unstructured":"F.X. Jules Dorion, \u201cLe banquet,\u201d in Dorion,Premier congr\u00e8s,xc.","key":"fn32"},{"unstructured":"Brochu, \u201cIntroduction,\u201dxvi.","key":"fn33"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, \u201cLa m\u00e9decine et la race,\u201d 138.","key":"fn34"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, 138.","key":"fn35"},{"unstructured":"See, for instance, F.X. Jules Dorion, \u201cL\u2019alcoolisme chronique,\u201d in Dorion,Premier Congr\u00e8s, 163; L.J.O. Sirois, \u201cLa prophylaxie de l\u2019alcoolisme,\u201d in Charles de Bois, ed.Troisi\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s de l\u2019Association des m\u00e9decins de langue fran\u00e7aise d\u2019Am\u00e9rique du Nord tenu aux Trois-Rivi\u00e8res les 26, 27 et 28 juin 1906(Trois-Rivi\u00e8res: Imp. Vanassi & LeFran\u00e7ois, 1906), 315; Henri Triboulet, \u201cHygi\u00e8ne des boissons et tuberculose \u2013 influence causale de l\u2019alcoolisation,\u201d in Bois,Troisi\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s, 342; Albert Laurendeau, \u201cAlcoolisme,\u201d in Bois,Troisi\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s, 375; C.N. Valin, \u201cCorrigeons notre r\u00e9gime alimentaire,\u201d in Bois,Troisi\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s, 389; Association des m\u00e9decins de langue fran\u00e7aise d\u2019Am\u00e9rique du Nord, \u201cCl\u00f4ture : V\u0153ux g\u00e9n\u00e9raux et sp\u00e9ciaux formul\u00e9s et approuv\u00e9s en s\u00e9ance g\u00e9n\u00e9rale de cl\u00f4ture,\u201d in Albert LeSage, ed.Second Congr\u00e8s de l\u2019Association des m\u00e9decins de langue fran\u00e7aise d\u2019Am\u00e9rique du Nord tenu \u00e0 Montr\u00e9al le 28, 29 et 30 juin 1904(Montr\u00e9al: Imp. La Patrie, 1905), 560; C.N. Valin, \u201cN\u00e9cessit\u00e9 urgente de l\u2019enseignement scolaire de l\u2019hygi\u00e8ne,\u201d in Paquet,Quatri\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s, 328\u201330.","key":"fn36"},{"unstructured":"The term d\u00e9g\u00e9n\u00e9rescence was coined by B\u00e9n\u00e9dict-Auguste Morel to designate a psychiatric diagnosis, but its meaning changed over time to refer to the declining quality of the race. It was brought to Qu\u00e9bec around 1885 by French-Canadian alienists who had studied in Paris under Valentin Magnan. Richard S. Fogarty and Michael S. Osborne, \"Eugenics in France and the Colonies,\" in The Oxford Handbook, 336-37. For its use in Qu\u00e9bec, see Peter Keating, La science du mal : l'institution de la psychiatrie au Qu\u00e9bec, 1800-1914 (Montr\u00e9al: Bor\u00e9al, 1993), 111-41","key":"#cr-split#-fn37.1"},{"unstructured":"Guy Grenier, Les monstres, les fous et les autres : la folie criminelle au Qu\u00e9bec (Montr\u00e9al: \u00c9ditions trait d'union, 1999), 205-55","key":"#cr-split#-fn37.2"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johanne Collin and David Hughes, \"Entre m\u00e9decine, culture et pens\u00e9e sociopolitique : le concept de d\u00e9g\u00e9n\u00e9rescence au Qu\u00e9bec (1860-1925),\" CBMH\/BCHM 33 (2016): 35-58.","key":"#cr-split#-fn37.3","DOI":"10.3138\/cbmh.33.1.35"},{"unstructured":"L.J.O. Sirois, \u201cDes causes et des moyens hygi\u00e9niques d\u2019emp\u00eacher la d\u00e9g\u00e9n\u00e9rescence physique de la race canadienne-fran\u00e7aise,\u201d in Dorion,Premier Congr\u00e8s, 517.","key":"fn38"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Denis Goulet, Gilles Lemire, and Denis Gauvreau, \u201cDes bureaux d\u2019hygi\u00e8ne municipaux aux unit\u00e9s sanitaires. Le Conseil d\u2019hygi\u00e8ne de la province de Qu\u00e9bec et la structuration d\u2019un syst\u00e8me de sant\u00e9 publique, 1886\u20131926,\u201dRevue d\u2019histoire de l\u2019Am\u00e9rique fran\u00e7aise49 (1996): 495. The Commission provinciale d\u2019hygi\u00e8ne de Qu\u00e9bec, founded in 1886, was renamed the Conseil d\u2019hygi\u00e8ne de la province de Qu\u00e9bec in 1888.","key":"fn39","DOI":"10.7202\/305462ar"},{"unstructured":"Sirois, \u201cDes causes et des moyens hygi\u00e9niques,\u201d 517\u201318.","key":"fn40"},{"unstructured":"Valin, \u201cN\u00e9cessit\u00e9 urgente,\u201d 330\u201331.","key":"fn41"},{"unstructured":"Valin, 327.","key":"fn42"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albert Laurendeau, an avowed Darwinist, ran into considerable trouble for criticizing the French-Canadian clergy and their rejection of transformism inLa vie : consid\u00e9rations biologiques(1911). It is doubtful that Laurendeau\u2019s colleagues \u2013 except maybe Charles-Narcisse Valin\u00a0\u2013 shared his radical, controversial belief in Darwinian evolution. See Jean Guy Petit, \u201cDarwinisme et Catholicisme au Qu\u00e9bec au d\u00e9but du XXesi\u00e8cle : autour du Dr. Albert Laurendeau,\u201dRevue d\u2019Histoire de l\u2019Am\u00e9rique fran\u00e7aise61 (2007): 201\u2013233.","key":"fn43","DOI":"10.7202\/018060ar"},{"unstructured":"See, for instance, Joseph-Isra\u00ebl Desroches,Cat\u00e9chisme d\u2019hygi\u00e8ne priv\u00e9e et publique(Montr\u00e9al: Cadieux & Derome, 1897), 31\u201332.","key":"fn44"},{"unstructured":"Valin, \u201cCorrigeons notre r\u00e9gime alimentaire,\u201d 389.","key":"fn45"},{"unstructured":"Sirois, \u201cLa prophylaxie de l\u2019alcoolisme,\u201d 315.","key":"fn46"},{"unstructured":"Sirois, 315.","key":"fn47"},{"unstructured":"Dorion, \u201cL\u2019alcoolisme chronique,\u201d 161.","key":"fn48"},{"unstructured":"Triboulet, \u201cHygi\u00e8ne des boissons et tuberculose,\u201d 342.","key":"fn49"},{"unstructured":"See, for instance, J.G. Paradis, \u201cEnseignons aux n\u00f4tres comment combattre la tuberculose,\u201d in Dorion,Premier Congr\u00e8s,547\u201363; L.J.O. Sirois, \u201cProphylaxie de la tuberculose \u2013 erreurs et pr\u00e9jug\u00e9s,\u201d in Paquet,Quatri\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s, 271\u201375; Adolphus Knopf, \u201cMoyens de d\u00e9fense contre la pr\u00e9disposition \u00e0 la tuberculose et contre l\u2019infection pendant l\u2019enfance,\u201d in Paquet,Quatri\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s, 157\u201375. Knopf was a world-renowned expert on the issue of tuberculosis who was invited to speak before the AMLFAN in 1908.","key":"fn50"},{"unstructured":"Arthur Rousseau, \u201cTuberculose : \u00e9tiologie \u2013 prophylaxie,\u201d in Bois,Troisi\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s, 63.\u201d","key":"fn51"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, \u201cTuberculose,\u201d 64.","key":"fn52"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, \u201cTuberculose,\u201d 63.","key":"fn53"},{"unstructured":"Paradis, \u201cEnseignons aux n\u00f4tres,\u201d 563.","key":"fn54"},{"unstructured":"Association des m\u00e9decins de langue fran\u00e7aise d\u2019Am\u00e9rique du Nord, \u201cV\u0153ux adopt\u00e9s par le congr\u00e8s dans sa s\u00e9ance de cl\u00f4ture du jeudi, 28\u00a0juin 1906,\u201d in Bois,Troisi\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s, 730.","key":"fn55"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, \u201cTuberculose,\u201d 62.","key":"fn56"},{"unstructured":"J.B.A. Lamarche and E.A. Ren\u00e9 de Cotret, \u201cHygi\u00e8ne de la grossesse et prophylaxie de ses accidents,\u201d in LeSage,Second Congr\u00e8s, 388.","key":"fn57"},{"unstructured":"Lamarche and de Cotret, \u201cHygi\u00e8ne de la grossesse,\u201d 388.","key":"fn58"},{"unstructured":"Lamarche and de Cotret, 396.","key":"fn59"},{"unstructured":"Lamarche and de Cotret, 397.","key":"fn60"},{"unstructured":"Lamarche and de Cotret, 395\u201398.","key":"fn61"},{"unstructured":"Lamarche and de Cotret, 399.","key":"fn62"},{"unstructured":"Lamarche and de Cotret, 399.","key":"fn63"},{"unstructured":"Carol,Histoire de l\u2019eug\u00e9nisme en France, 312.","key":"fn64"},{"unstructured":"Lamarche and de Cotret, \u201cHygi\u00e8ne de la grossesse,\u201d 399. The passage reads: \u201cs\u2019il constate la pr\u00e9sence de tares h\u00e9r\u00e9ditaires ou acquises, syphilis, gonnorrh\u00e9e [sic], tuberculose, \u00e9pilepsie, brightisme, affections cardiaques ou des anomalies des organes g\u00e9nitaux, viciations du bassin, il devra avertir qui de droit des cons\u00e9quences futures.\u201d","key":"fn65"},{"unstructured":"See Lion Murard and Patrick Zylberman,L\u2019hygi\u00e8ne dans la R\u00e9publique : La sant\u00e9 publique en France ou l\u2019utopie contrari\u00e9e, 1870\u20131918(Paris: Fayard, 1996), 70\u201372.","key":"fn66"},{"unstructured":"G\u00e9rard Jorland,Une soci\u00e9t\u00e9 \u00e0 soigner : Hygi\u00e8ne et salubrit\u00e9 publique en France au XIXesi\u00e8cle(Paris: \u00c9ditions Gallimard, 2010), 14\u201315.","key":"fn67"},{"unstructured":"C.N. Valin, \u201c\u00c9volution de la m\u00e9decine vers l\u2019hygi\u00e8ne \u2013 Importance de l\u2019hygi\u00e8ne du point de vue m\u00e9dical et social \u2013 Attitude du m\u00e9decin devant l\u2019hygi\u00e8ne moderne,\u201d in LeSage,Second Congr\u00e8s, 464\u201365.","key":"fn68"},{"unstructured":"Valin, \u201cN\u00e9cessit\u00e9 urgente,\u201d 328.","key":"fn71"},{"unstructured":"Serge Gagnon,Religion, Moralit\u00e9, Modernit\u00e9(Qu\u00e9bec: Les Presses de l\u2019Universit\u00e9 Laval, 1999), 73, 77. See, for instance, S\u00e9v\u00e9rin Lachapelle,Manuel d\u2019hygi\u00e8ne priv\u00e9e \u00e0 l\u2019usage des \u00e9coles et des familles(Montr\u00e9al: Cadieux & Derome, 1890) as well as Desroches\u2019Cat\u00e9chisme(note 57).","key":"fn72"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, \u201cTuberculose,\u201d 69.","key":"fn73"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, 69.","key":"fn74"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, 69.","key":"fn75"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, 62.","key":"fn76"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, 62.","key":"fn77"},{"unstructured":"Baillargeon,Un Qu\u00e9bec en mal d\u2019enfants, 68\u201369. See also Denyse Baillargeon,Br\u00e8ve histoire des femmes au Qu\u00e9bec(Montr\u00e9al: Bor\u00e9al, 2012).","key":"fn78"},{"unstructured":"S\u00e9v\u00e9rin Lachapelle, \u201cTh\u00e9rapeutique infantile,\u201d in Dorion,Premier Congr\u00e8s, 451.","key":"fn79"},{"unstructured":"Ren\u00e9e Lachance and R\u00e9nald Lessard, \u201cUn encouragement aux familles de douze enfants vivants,\u201dCap-aux-Diamants53 (1998): 58.","key":"fn80"},{"unstructured":"Lachapelle, \u201cDe l\u2019alimentation,\u201d 453.","key":"fn81"},{"unstructured":"Linteau, Durocher, and Robert,Histoire du Qu\u00e9bec contemporain, T. 1, 32. For a detailed account of infant mortality in Qu\u00e9bec after 1910, see Baillargeon,Un Qu\u00e9bec en mal d\u2019enfants,33\u201364.","key":"fn82"},{"unstructured":"Denyse Baillargeon discusses the nationalistic preoccupations of French-Canadian physicians in Baillargeon,Un Qu\u00e9bec en mal d\u2019enfants, 67\u201381.See also Paradis, \u201cEnseignons aux n\u00f4tres,\u201d 554; R.\u00a0Fortier, \u201cDe l\u2019alimentation artificielle des enfants du premier \u00e2ge,\u201d in Dorion,Premier Congr\u00e8s, 458; F.X. de Martigny, \u201cLa blennorrhagie chez la femme,\u201d in Bois,Troisi\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s, 590.","key":"fn83"},{"unstructured":"Galton,Essays, 34.","key":"fn84"},{"unstructured":"See, for instance, William H. Schneider,Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Francesco Cassata,Building the New Man: Eugenics, Racial Science and Genetics in Twentieth-Century Italy(Budapest: Central European University Press, 2011).","key":"fn85"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, \u201cTuberculose,\u201d 62.","key":"fn86"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, \u201cLa m\u00e9decine et la race,\u201d 137.","key":"fn87"},{"unstructured":"Galton,Essays, 70.","key":"fn88"},{"unstructured":"Paul and Moore, \u201cThe Darwinian Context,\u201d 36\u201337.","key":"fn89"},{"unstructured":"Galton,Essays, 100\u2013103.","key":"fn90"},{"unstructured":"See Daniel J. Kevles,In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 35\u201340.","key":"fn91"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"On this topic, see Carol,Histoire de l\u2019eug\u00e9nisme en France; Carlos L\u00f3pez-Beltr\u00e1n, \u201cIn the Cradle of Heredity; French Physicians and L\u2019H\u00e9r\u00e9dit\u00e9 Naturelle in the Early 19th Century,\u201dJournal of the History of Biology37 (2004).","key":"fn92","DOI":"10.1023\/B:HIST.0000020385.44164.e2"},{"unstructured":"Valin, \u201cN\u00e9cessit\u00e9 urgente,\u201d 326.","key":"fn93"},{"unstructured":"Gagnon,Religion, Moralit\u00e9, Modernit\u00e9, 71.","key":"fn94"},{"unstructured":"Valin, for instance, quotes Herbert Spencer when he claims that the health of animals and of humans follow the same laws. Valin, \u201cN\u00e9cessit\u00e9 urgente,\u201d 330. Some French-Canadian physicians likely read in the English language; the circulation of ideas in Montr\u00e9al, a city with an important English-speaking population, cannot be discounted either.","key":"fn95"},{"unstructured":"Schneider,Quality and Quantity, 8\u201310.","key":"fn96"},{"unstructured":"Adolphe Pinard, \u201cDe la d\u00e9population en France,\u201dRevue scientifique, 30 July 1910, 132. Quoted in Carol,Histoire de l\u2019eug\u00e9nisme en France, 50. In 1910, Pinard definedpu\u00e9ricultureas \u201cla science qui a pour but la recherche des connaissances relatives \u00e0 la reproduction, \u00e0 la conservation et \u00e0 l\u2019am\u00e9lioration de l\u2019esp\u00e8ce humaine.\u201d","key":"fn97"},{"unstructured":"See Carol,Histoire de l\u2019eug\u00e9nisme en France, 45\u201365.","key":"fn98"},{"unstructured":"Rousseau, \u201cLa m\u00e9decine et la race,\u201d 138\u201339. The entire quotation reads: \u201cIl y a lieu enfin de chercher \u00e0 l\u2019occasion dans le mariage le contrepoids des dispositions h\u00e9r\u00e9ditaires pathologiques que peuvent si lamentablement accentuer les unions aveugl\u00e9ment conclues.\u201d","key":"fn99"},{"unstructured":"Carol,Histoire de l\u2019eug\u00e9nisme en France, 32\u201334.","key":"fn100"},{"unstructured":"Luc Chartrand, Raymond Duchesne, and Yves Gingras,Histoire des sciences au Qu\u00e9bec de la Nouvelle-France \u00e0 nos jours(Montr\u00e9al: Bor\u00e9al, 2008), 362; Goulet and Boivin, \u201cROUSSEAU.\u201d","key":"fn101"},{"unstructured":"Lamarche and de Cotret, \u201cHygi\u00e8ne de la grossesse,\u201d 394\u201398.","key":"fn102"},{"unstructured":"Association des m\u00e9decins de langue fran\u00e7aise d\u2019Am\u00e9rique du Nord, \u201cCl\u00f4ture,\u201d 562.","key":"fn103"},{"unstructured":"Valin, \u201cN\u00e9cessit\u00e9 urgente,\u201d 326.","key":"fn104"},{"unstructured":"L\u2019Union m\u00e9dicale du Canada, a prominent Montr\u00e9al-based medical journal, gestured on occasion towards French debates on the improvement of the human race. See, for instance, \u201cL\u2019am\u00e9lioration de la race humaine,\u201dL\u2019Union m\u00e9dicale du Canada33 (1904): 47\u201350.","key":"fn105"},{"unstructured":"Grenier,100 ans, 117. It should be noted, however, that the AMLFAN was partly responsible for the Qu\u00e9bec government\u2019s decision to appoint a royal commission to study the question of tuberculosis in 1909. Denis Goulet and Andr\u00e9 Paradis, Trois si\u00e8cles d\u2019histoire m\u00e9dicale au Qu\u00e9bec : Chronologie des institutions et des pratiques (1639\u20131939)(Montr\u00e9al: VLB \u00c9diteur, 1992), 269.","key":"fn106"},{"unstructured":"The gynecologist Albert Laurendeau embraced eugenics upon hearing news of the First International Eugenics Congress in London. Between 1912 and 1913, the radical, neo-Malthusian newspaper Le Pays published several articles on the topic of eugenics, including a letter to the editor calling for the creation of a Eugenics Society in Montr\u00e9al. Laurendeau, \"Premier Congr\u00e8s,\" 6","key":"#cr-split#-fn107.1"},{"unstructured":"L.P.D. \"Correspondance,\" Le Pays (Montr\u00e9al), 19 October 1912, 5.","key":"#cr-split#-fn107.2"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Erika Dyck, \u201cHistory of Eugenics Revisited,\u201dCBMH\/BCHM31 (2014): 15.","key":"fn108","DOI":"10.3138\/cbmh.31.1.7"}],"container-title":["Canadian Bulletin of Medical History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/utpjournals.press\/doi\/pdf\/10.3138\/cbmh.401-112019","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,12]],"date-time":"2024-08-12T09:27:29Z","timestamp":1723454849000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/utpjournals.press\/doi\/10.3138\/cbmh.401-112019"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]},"references-count":116,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.3138\/cbmh.401-112019"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3138\/cbmh.401-112019","relation":{},"ISSN":["0823-2105","2371-0179"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"0823-2105"},{"type":"electronic","value":"2371-0179"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}}}