{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,10]],"date-time":"2023-12-10T00:13:06Z","timestamp":1702167186478},"reference-count":166,"publisher":"University of Toronto Press Inc. (UTPress)","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Canadian Journal of Health History"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Abstract.<\/jats:p><jats:p>During the First World War, 2845 women served as nursing sisters with the Canadian Expeditionary Force. After the war, some women developed nervous and mental conditions that they said were caused by their wartime service and applied for military pensions and treatment. So how were these women treated by doctors and pension boards? Men who suffered from psychological trauma were frequently labelled as \u201ccowards\u201d or \u201cmalingerers.\u201d Many of the symptoms typically associated with nervous cases, such as hysteria, were viewed as inherently feminine at the time but we know little about how this criterion was applied to female veterans. One hundred forty-three nursing sisters who applied for pensions reported that they suffered from mental and nervous illnesses. An examination of veteran pension files suggests that psychologically traumatized women were also judged based on gendered stereotypes and encountered similar barriers to male veterans in trying to prove that their conditions were attributable to their service. These findings reveal the unique challenges and trauma women faced long after the war had ended.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3138\/cjhh.549-102021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,24]],"date-time":"2023-03-24T22:41:35Z","timestamp":1679697695000},"page":"223-252","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["\u201cIf Ever a Wreck Came Back from Overseas She Was One\u201d: The Treatment and Pensioning of Psychologically Traumatized Nursing Sisters after the First World War"],"prefix":"10.3138","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Lyndsay","family":"Rosenthal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1696","reference":[{"key":"r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/chr.91.3.503"},{"key":"r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/chr.91.3.503"},{"key":"r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/chr.91.3.503"},{"key":"r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/chr.91.3.503"},{"key":"r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/chr.91.3.503"},{"key":"r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/chr.91.3.503"},{"key":"r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/chr.91.3.503"},{"key":"r1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/chr.91.3.503"},{"key":"r2","unstructured":"Montgomery,Invisible Injured, 39\u201350."},{"key":"r3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-137-03027-6_9","author":"Croft Hazel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gender and Conflict since 1914: Historical and Interdisciplinary Perspectives"},{"key":"r3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.17760\/D20318702","volume-title":"\u2018She Is Lost to Time, Place\u2019: Women, War Trauma, the First World War","author":"Keown E.","year":"2019"},{"key":"r3","volume-title":"\u2018The Report on Her Transfer Was Shell Shock\u2019: A. Study of the Psychological Disorders of Nurses, Female Voluntary Aid Detachments Who Served Alongside the British, Allied Expeditionary Forces during the First World War, 1914\u20131918","author":"Denise","year":"2008"},{"key":"r4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7228\/manchester\/9780719090363.001.0001","volume-title":"Working in a World of Hurt: Trauma and Resilience in the Narratives of Medical Personnel in Warzones","author":"Acton Carol","year":"2015"},{"key":"r4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203448922","volume-title":"First World War Nursing: New Perspectives","author":"Fell Alison S.","year":"2013"},{"key":"r4","volume-title":"Containing Trauma: Nursing Work in the First World War","author":"Hallett Christine E.","year":"2009"},{"key":"r4","volume-title":"War-Torn Exchanges: The Lives and Letters of Nursing Sisters Laura Holland and Mildred Forbes","author":"Holland Laura","year":"2016"},{"key":"r5","unstructured":"Acton and Potter,Working in a World of Hurt, 33\u201334, and"},{"issue":"1","key":"r5","first-page":"127","volume":"42","author":"Morin-Pelletier M\u00e9lanie","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acadiensis"},{"key":"r6","unstructured":"Showalter,The Female Malady, 5. See also"},{"key":"r6","unstructured":"Edward Shorter,From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era(New York: The Free Press, 1992), xi."},{"key":"r7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cynthia Toman,Sister Soldiers of the Great War: The Nurses of the Canadian Army Medical Corps, (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2016), 17.","DOI":"10.59962\/9780774832151"},{"key":"r8","unstructured":"Desmond Morton and Glenn Wright,Winning the Second Battle: Canadian Veterans and the Return to Civilian Life, 1915\u20131930(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987), 155. In 1926, the average yearly income was $1,800 (salaried) and $1,106 (wage-earning):"},{"key":"r8","unstructured":"Statistics Canada, \u201cSalaries and Wages Paid in Manufacturing Industries, by Province and Industrial Group, 1941, with Total for Significant Years, 1917 to 1943,\u201dThe Canada Year Book(1947), https:\/\/www65.statcan.gc.ca\/acyb02\/1947\/acyb02_19470552021-eng.htm."},{"key":"r9","unstructured":"Copp and Humphries,Combat Stress, 82\u201391."},{"key":"r10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wendy Mitchinson,Body Failure: Medical Views of Women, 1900\u20131950(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013), 241\u201343.","DOI":"10.3138\/9781442665279"},{"key":"r11","unstructured":"Humphries,A Weary Road, 23."},{"key":"r12","unstructured":"Ben Shephard,A War of Nerves: Soldiers and Psychiatrists(London: Jonathan Cape, 2000), 98."},{"key":"r13","unstructured":"Loughran,Shell-Shock and Medical Culture, 69."},{"key":"r14","unstructured":"Elaine Showalter,Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Culture(New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 14."},{"key":"r15","unstructured":"Showalter,Hystories, 14."},{"key":"r16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andrew T. Scull,Hysteria: The Biography(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009): 135\u201337.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199560967.001.0001"},{"key":"r17","unstructured":"Showalter,The Female Malady, 172."},{"issue":"3","key":"r18","first-page":"519","volume":"91","author":"Humphries Mark","year":"2010","journal-title":"Canadian Historical Review"},{"key":"r19","unstructured":"Humphries,A Weary Road, 20\u201321."},{"key":"r20","unstructured":"Anthony Babington,Shell-Shock: A History of the Changing Attitudes of War Neuroses(London: Leo Cooper, 1997), 81 and 88;"},{"key":"r20","first-page":"324","author":"Brown Tom","year":"1984","journal-title":"Health, Disease and Medicine: Essays in Canadian History"},{"key":"r20","unstructured":"and Shephard,A War ofNerves, 109."},{"key":"r21","unstructured":"Dowbiggin,Keeping America Sane, 111."},{"key":"r22","unstructured":"Leese,Shell Shock, 10, 60, and 133."},{"key":"r23","unstructured":"Dowbiggin,Keeping America Sane, 133\u201391,"},{"key":"r23","unstructured":"and Humphries,A Weary Road, 324."},{"key":"r24","unstructured":"Humphries, \u201cWar\u2019s Long Shadow,\u201d 503\u20134."},{"key":"r25","unstructured":"Montgomery,Invisible Injured, 45."},{"key":"r26","first-page":"8","author":"Toman Cynthia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Place and Practice in Canadian Nursing History"},{"key":"r27","unstructured":"Toman,Sister Soldiers, 205;"},{"key":"r27","unstructured":"Acton and Potter,Working in a World of Hurt, 33."},{"key":"r28","unstructured":"Yvonne McEwen, \u201cIt\u2019s a Long Way to Tipperary\u201d: British and Irish Nurses in the Great War(Dunfermline, Scotland: Cualann Press, 2006): 98\u201399."},{"key":"r29","unstructured":"For a complete history of Canada\u2019s nursing sisters, see Toman,Sister Soldiers. For an examination of the role of Canadian women in the family economy, see"},{"key":"r29","volume-title":"The Gender of Breadwinners: Women, Men, and Change in Two Industrial Towns, 1880\u20131950","author":"Parr Joy","year":"1990"},{"issue":"2","key":"r30","first-page":"330","volume":"34","author":"Dodd Dianne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Canadian Bulletin of Medical History"},{"key":"r30","unstructured":"Toman,Sister Soldiers, 13."},{"key":"r31","unstructured":"Croft, \u201cEmotional Women,\u201d 114."},{"key":"r32","unstructured":"Poynter, \u201c\u2018The Report on Her Transfer Was Shell Shock,\u2019\u201d 37\u201338."},{"key":"r33","unstructured":"Keown, \u201c\u2018She Is Lost to Time and Place,\u201d\u2019 185\u201386."},{"key":"r34","unstructured":"Copp and Humphries,Combat Stress, 83."},{"key":"r35","unstructured":"Copp and Humphries, 83."},{"key":"r36","unstructured":"Last names are omitted to adhere to privacy policies regarding the use of pension files."},{"key":"r37","unstructured":"Laurier Military History (hereafter LMH) Archive, Veteran Affairs Canada (hereafter VAC), Pension File: Jean B., Pension Number 202507."},{"key":"r38","unstructured":"The National Archives (hereafter TNA), Personnel File: Jean B, WO 399\/1070."},{"key":"r39","unstructured":"Humphries,A Weary Road, 15."},{"key":"r40","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Jean B., Pension Number 202507."},{"key":"r41","unstructured":"Mitchinson,Body Failure, 241."},{"key":"r42","unstructured":"Farrar, \u201cThe Neuropsychiatric Service,\u201d 679."},{"key":"r43","unstructured":"Library and Archives Canada (LAC), Personnel File: Anna T., RG 150, Accession 1992-93\/166, Box 9787\u201317."},{"key":"r44","unstructured":"LMH, VAC Pension File: Anna T., Pension Number 160284."},{"key":"r45","unstructured":"LMH, VAC Pension File: Anna T."},{"key":"r46","unstructured":"LMH, VAC Pension File: Anna T."},{"key":"r47","unstructured":"LMH, VAC Pension File: Anna T."},{"key":"r48","unstructured":"Mitchinson,Body Failure, 241."},{"key":"r49","unstructured":"For an analysis of the postwar lives of nursing sisters, see Morin-Pelletier, \u201cB\u00e2tisseuses de l\u2019est,\u201d 127\u201349."},{"key":"r50","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Margaret R. Pension Number 143210, and LAC, Personnel File: Margaret R., RG 150, Accession 1992-93\/166, Box 8184\u201336."},{"key":"r51","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Margaret R."},{"key":"r52","unstructured":"Humphries, \u201cWar\u2019s Long Shadow,\u201d 505\u20137."},{"key":"r53","unstructured":"LMH, VAC Pension File, Mabel S., Pension Number 284."},{"issue":"4","key":"r54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.79.4.665","volume":"79","author":"Farrar C.B.","year":"1923","journal-title":"American Journal of Psychiatry"},{"key":"r55","unstructured":"Farrar, \u201cNeuroses Among Soldiers \u2013 Part 2,\u201d 621."},{"key":"r56","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Margaret R."},{"key":"r57","unstructured":"University of Toronto Archives (UTA), Farrar, \u201cMemorandum: P.C.1745,\u201d 20 October 1922, R1999-0011\/024 (08)."},{"key":"r58","unstructured":"LMH, VAC Pension File: Myrtle M., Pension Number 186407."},{"key":"r59","unstructured":"LMH, VAC Pension File: Myrtle M."},{"key":"r60","unstructured":"TNA, Personnel File: Janet M., WO 399\/5115."},{"key":"r61","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Janet M., Pension Number 216674."},{"key":"r62","unstructured":"LAC, Personnel File: Mina C., RG 150, Accession 1992-93\/166, Box 2107\u201336."},{"key":"r63","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Mina C., Pension Number 195484."},{"key":"r64","unstructured":"Disability pensions were awarded based on guidelines set out in the Pension Act that considered the degree to which illness or injury affected a veteran\u2019s ability to earn a living. See House of Commons Committees,Special Committee Pensions and Pension Regulations, vol. 1, 13th Parliament, 2nd Session, 1919-02-20 to 1919-07-07, 168\u201370."},{"key":"r65","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Annabelle F., Pension Number 217003."},{"key":"r66","unstructured":"LAC, Personnel File: Annabel [sic] F., RG 150, Accession 1992-93\/166, Box 3275\u201338."},{"key":"r67","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Annabelle F."},{"key":"r68","unstructured":"Mitchinson,Body Failure, 241."},{"key":"r69","unstructured":"Shorter,From Paralysis to Fatigue, 255."},{"key":"r70","unstructured":"Shorter, 292."},{"key":"r71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amy Koerber,From Hysteria to Hormones: A Rhetorical History(University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2018), xvi.","DOI":"10.1515\/9780271081571"},{"key":"r72","unstructured":"Mark S. Micale,Approaching Hysteria: Disease and Its Interpretations(New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995), 23."},{"key":"r73","unstructured":"Humphries, \u201cWar\u2019s Long Shadow,\u201d 506 and 512."},{"key":"r74","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Frances F., Pension Number N\/A."},{"key":"r75","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Frances F."},{"key":"r76","unstructured":"LMH, VAC Pension File: Frances F."},{"key":"r77","unstructured":"Showalter,The Female Malady, 12."},{"key":"r78","unstructured":"Micale,Approaching Hysteria, 26\u201327."},{"key":"r79","unstructured":"Micale, 28."},{"key":"r80","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Frances F."},{"key":"r81","unstructured":"Humphries,A Weary Road, 324."},{"key":"r82","unstructured":"Cheryl Lynn Krasnick,Prescribed Norms: Women and Health in Canada and the United States since 1800(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014): 22\u201327."},{"key":"r83","unstructured":"Koerber,From Hysteria to Hormones, 110\u201323."},{"key":"r84","unstructured":"Krasnick,Prescribed Norms, 22\u201323 and 33\u201335;"},{"key":"r84","unstructured":"Mitchinson,Body Failure, 245\u201326; and"},{"key":"r84","unstructured":"Showalter,The Female Malady, 130."},{"key":"r85","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Georgina L., Pension Number 115114."},{"key":"r86","unstructured":"Mitchinson,Body Failure, 246."},{"key":"r87","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Eleanor K., Pension Number 204197."},{"key":"r88","unstructured":"Krasnick,Prescribed Norms, 33."},{"key":"r89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Judith A. Houck,Hot and Bothered: Women, Medicine, and Menopause in Modern America, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 40, 44\u201346.","DOI":"10.4159\/9780674038813"},{"key":"r90","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Emily I., Pension Number 89223."},{"key":"r91","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Flora G., Pension Number N\/A."},{"key":"r92","unstructured":"LMH, VAC Pension File, Christine B., Pension Number 129612."},{"issue":"1","key":"r93","first-page":"13","volume":"23","author":"Mitchinson Wendy","year":"2006","journal-title":"Canadian Bulletin of Medical History"},{"key":"r94","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Christine B."},{"key":"r95","unstructured":"Mitchinson,Body Failure, 246\u201327."},{"issue":"5","key":"r96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e140","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/usx094","volume":"183","author":"Miller L.J.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Military Medicine"},{"key":"r96","first-page":"1","author":"Zephyrin L.C.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Women\u2019s Health Services, Veterans Health Administration, Department of Veterans Affairs"},{"key":"r97","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Florence C., Pension Number N\/A."},{"key":"r98","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Florence C."},{"key":"r99","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Florence C."},{"key":"r100","first-page":"85","author":"Carden-Coyne Ana","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gender and Conflict since 1914: Historical and Interdisciplinary Perspectives"},{"key":"r101","unstructured":"UTA, CB Farrar Papers, Series 1260-7-1-B1999-0011\/024(04), Soldier\u2019s Civil Re-Establishment Case Histories A-C, Case File: C., Fanny."},{"key":"r102","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File, Florence C., Pension Number N\/A."},{"key":"r103","unstructured":"Mitchinson,Bodily Failures, 246\u201348."},{"key":"r104","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File, Florence C., Pension Number N\/A."},{"key":"r105","unstructured":"Krasnick,Prescribed Norms, 29\u201330."},{"key":"r106","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Margaret C., Pension Number 128528."},{"key":"r107","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Margaret C."},{"key":"r108","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Margaret C."},{"key":"r109","unstructured":"Humphries,A Weary Road, 16,"},{"key":"r109","unstructured":"and Loughran,Shell-Shock and Medical Culture, 58."},{"key":"r110","unstructured":"Showalter,The Female Malady, 138\u201344."},{"issue":"2","key":"r111","first-page":"99","volume":"27","author":"Humphries Mark Osborne","year":"2008","journal-title":"War & Society"},{"key":"r111","unstructured":"and Humphries,A Weary Road, 10."},{"key":"r112","unstructured":"Copp and Humphries,Combat Stress, 95\u201397."},{"key":"r113","unstructured":"LAC, Personnel File: Ion B., RG 150, Accession 1992-93\/166, Box 10509\u201312."},{"key":"r114","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Ion B., Pension Number 116512."},{"key":"r115","unstructured":"Humphries,A Weary Road, 144,"},{"key":"r115","unstructured":"and Humphries with Kurchinski, \u201cRest, Relax and Get Well,\u201d 104."},{"key":"r116","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Mabel H., Pension Number 85776."},{"key":"r117","first-page":"25","author":"Farrar C.B.","year":"1917","journal-title":"Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy"},{"key":"r118","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Janet M., Pension Number 216674."},{"key":"r119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Judith Friedland,Restoring the Spirit: The Beginnings of Occupational Therapy in Canada, 1890\u20131930, (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen\u2019s University Press, 2011), 86 and 96.","DOI":"10.1515\/9780773586116"},{"key":"r120","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Frances F., Pension Number N\/A."},{"key":"r121","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Frances F."},{"key":"r122","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Flora G."},{"key":"r123","unstructured":"LMH, VAC, Pension File: Margaret 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