{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,25]],"date-time":"2024-05-25T18:29:29Z","timestamp":1716661769208},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"University of Toronto Press Inc. (UTPress)","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Canadian Journal of Health History"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Abstract.<\/jats:p><jats:p>In 1962, Ontario\u2019s Addiction Research Foundation launched the first double-blind randomized controlled trial of LSD therapy as a treatment for alcoholism. The study, which found that LSD was not effective, was heavily criticized by other therapists working with the drug. These critics argued that the Toronto researchers who carried out the study were biased against LSD and used an anti-therapeutic method that was destined to produce negative results. Instead of creating a comfortable and supportive environment, they stressed, the Toronto group restrained patients to a bed in a hospital ward, used an unusually large dose of LSD, and hardly provided any careful therapeutic support. Some even compared this method to a \u201cform of torture.\u201d Historians have paid little attention to the study, mentioning it only as an example of flawed or na\u00efve LSD therapy that contrasted with the more advanced \u201cpsychedelic\u201d approach developed in Saskatchewan. In this paper, I take a closer look at the Toronto psychiatrists who carried out the study and created the unique method that was employed. I show that they were actually quite excited about LSD and were more sophisticated in their approach to its use than has been appreciated by historians and critics. In many ways, they had their own brand of LSD expertise that differed from that of the Saskatchewan group. Some of the problems with the ARF study, then, did not stem from negative bias or a lack of competency, but instead resulted from the awkward relationship between LSD therapy and controlled trials.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3138\/cjhh.594-062022","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,30]],"date-time":"2023-05-30T18:45:50Z","timestamp":1685472350000},"page":"33-64","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["The Varieties of Psychedelic Expertise in 1960s Canada: The Psychiatrists behind the Addiction Research Foundation\u2019s Study of LSD Therapy"],"prefix":"10.3138","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Andrew","family":"Jones","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1696","reference":[{"key":"r1","first-page":"578","volume":"20","author":"Chwelos Nick","year":"1959","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol"},{"key":"r2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.15288\/qjsa.1964.25.333","volume":"25","author":"Smart Reginald","year":"1964","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol"},{"key":"r3","unstructured":"H. David Archibald,The Addiction Research Foundation: A Voyage of Discovery(Toronto: ARF Books, 1990), 15; in 1961, the foundation was renamed the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Research Foundation before becoming the Addiction Research Foundation in 1967. For simplicity, I will follow other historians in using the latter name\u2019s abbreviation, ARF. See"},{"key":"r3","first-page":"197","volume-title":"The Real Dope: Social, Legal, and Historical Perspectives on the Regulation of Drugs in Canada","author":"Martel Marcel","year":"2011"},{"key":"r4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.15288\/qjsa.1966.27.469","volume":"27","author":"Smart Reginald","year":"1966","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol"},{"key":"r5","unstructured":"Matthew Oram,The Trials of Psychedelic Therapy: LSD Psychotherapy in America(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2018), 8."},{"issue":"6","key":"r6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.2307\/2095325","volume":"48","author":"Gieryn Thomas F.","year":"1983","journal-title":"American Sociological Review"},{"key":"r6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.5749\/j.ctv13qfvv7","volume-title":"Acid Revival: The Psychedelic Renaissance and the Quest for Medical Legitimacy","author":"Giffort Danielle","year":"2020"},{"key":"r7","unstructured":"Erika Dyck,Psychedelic Psychiatry: LSD from Clinic to Campus(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), 73\u201375."},{"key":"r8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ido Hartogoshn,The American Trip: Set, Setting, and the Psychedelic Experience in the Twentieth Century(Cambridge: MIT Press, 2020), 274\u201375;","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/11888.001.0001"},{"key":"r8","unstructured":"Giffort, Acid Revival, 25\u201326."},{"key":"r9","unstructured":"Oram,The Trials of Psychedelic Therapy, 9."},{"key":"r10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Patrick W. Barber,Psychedelic Revolutionaries: LSD and the Birth of Hallucinogenic Research(Regina: University of Regina Press, 2018), 240\u201346. Also, for a literature review that includes a description of the ARF study, see","DOI":"10.1515\/9780889774216"},{"key":"r10","first-page":"396","volume":"30","author":"Mangini Mariavittoria","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Psychoactive Drugs"},{"key":"r11","unstructured":"Oram,The Trials of Psychedelic Therapy, 89."},{"key":"r12","unstructured":"Betsy Gordon Psychoactive Substances Research Collection [BGPS], Charles Savage Papers, MSP 70, Box 6, Folder 2, Bureau on Alcoholism, \u201cApparent Results of Referrals of Alcoholics for LSD Therapy,\u201d 31 December 1962, 5."},{"key":"r13","unstructured":"Chwelos et al. \u201cUse of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide,\u201d 578\u201390."},{"key":"r14","first-page":"428","volume":"66","author":"Osmond Humphry","year":"1957","journal-title":"Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"r15","unstructured":"Dyck,Psychedelic Psychiatry, 68."},{"key":"r16","unstructured":"Duncan Blewett and Nick Chwelos,Handbook for the Therapeutic Use of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide \u2013 25, Individual and Group Procedures(1959)."},{"key":"r17","first-page":"201","volume-title":"The Use of LSD in Psychotherapy and Alcoholism","author":"Baker Earle F.W.","year":"1967"},{"key":"r18","unstructured":"Faculty of Medicine, \u201cReport of the Dean 1952\/53,\u201dUniversity of Toronto Archives & Records Management Services(1953), 49."},{"key":"r19","unstructured":"University of Toronto Archives & Records Management Services, A2000\u20130008, Baker, E."},{"key":"r20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edward Shorter,Partnership for Excellence: Medicine at the University of Toronto and Academic Hospitals(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013), 364.","DOI":"10.3138\/9781442664036"},{"key":"r21","first-page":"733","volume":"82","author":"Baker Earle F.W.","year":"1960","journal-title":"Canadian Medical Association Journal"},{"key":"r22","unstructured":"Faculty of Medicine, \u201cReport of the Dean 1959\/60,\u201dUniversity of Toronto Archives & Records Management Services(1953), 67;"},{"key":"r22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1177\/070674376000500303","volume":"5","author":"Baker Earle F.W.","year":"1960","journal-title":"Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal"},{"key":"r23","unstructured":"Faculty of Medicine, \u201cReport of the Dean 1959\/60,\u201d 67."},{"issue":"1","key":"r24","first-page":"19","volume":"6","author":"Lewis David J.","year":"1958","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical and Experimental Pathology and Quarterly Review of Psychiatry and Neurology"},{"key":"r25","unstructured":"\u201cTV Sequel: Drug Row Spreads to Clergy,\u201dToronto Star, 14 December 1962, 1\u20132."},{"key":"r26","unstructured":"Earle F.W. Baker, \u201cLSD Psychotherapy; LSD Psycho-exploration,\u201d 201\u20132."},{"key":"r27","unstructured":"Baker, 201."},{"key":"r28","first-page":"1201","volume":"91","author":"Baker Earle F.W.","year":"1964","journal-title":"Canadian Medical Association Journal"},{"key":"r29","unstructured":"Baker, \u201cLSD Psychotherapy,\u201d 202."},{"key":"r30","unstructured":"Baker, 192."},{"key":"r31","unstructured":"Baker, \u201cThe Use of Lysergic Acid,\u201d 1200."},{"key":"r32","unstructured":"Baker, \u201cLSD Psychotherapy,\u201d 205."},{"key":"r33","unstructured":"Baker, 195."},{"key":"r34","unstructured":"Baker, 205."},{"key":"r35","unstructured":"Baker, \u201cThe Use of Lysergic Acid,\u201d 1202."},{"key":"r36","unstructured":"Baker, \u201cLSD Psychotherapy,\u201d 192."},{"key":"r37","unstructured":"Baker, \u201cThe Use of Lysergic Acid,\u201d 1202."},{"key":"r38","unstructured":"Earle F.W. Baker, \u201cThe L.S.D. Experience,\u201dJournal of the Addictions14 (1967): 22."},{"key":"r39","unstructured":"Baker, \u201cThe use of Lysergic Acid,\u201d 1202."},{"key":"r40","unstructured":"\u201cShe Tries Suspect Drug on TV,\u201dToronto Star, 13 December 1962, 1."},{"key":"r41","unstructured":"\u201cMany Aided by LSD Test, Doctor Says,\u201dVancouver Sun, 8 June 1964,1; 10."},{"key":"r42","unstructured":"Baker, \u201cThe Use of Lysergic Acid,\u201d 1202."},{"key":"r43","unstructured":"Baker 1965, \u201cLSD Psychotherapy,\u201d 204\u20135."},{"key":"r44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1353\/pbm.1989.0024","volume":"32","author":"Lasagna Louis","year":"1989","journal-title":"Perspectives in Biology and Medicine"},{"key":"r45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roy Grinker, \u201cBootlegged Ecstasy,\u201dJournal of the American Medical Association(1964), 192.","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1964.03060230096025"},{"key":"r46","unstructured":"Jonathan Cole, quoted in Sidney Katz, \u201cThe Heaven or Hell Drugs,\u201dMaclean\u2019s, 20 June 1964, 10."},{"key":"r47","unstructured":"\u201cDoctors Protest Move to Ban \u2018Alcoholics\u2019 Drug,\u201dToronto Daily Star, 5 December 1962, 7."},{"key":"r48","unstructured":"\u201cBanned Drug Released for Research,\u201dGlobe and Mail, 10 January 1963, 3."},{"key":"r49","first-page":"170","volume-title":"The Real Dope: Social, Legal, and Historical Perspectives on the Regulation of Drugs in Canada","author":"Dyck Erika","year":"2011"},{"key":"r50","unstructured":"Smart and Storm, \u201cThe Efficacy of LSD,\u201d 334."},{"key":"r51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.15288\/qjsa.1964.25.742","volume":"25","author":"Smith Colin","year":"1964","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol"},{"key":"r52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"742","DOI":"10.15288\/qjsa.1964.25.742","volume":"25","author":"Smith Colin","year":"1964","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol"},{"key":"r53","unstructured":"Special & Historical Collections at the CAMH Library, ARF Substudies, #224; R.G. Smart, \u201cThe Exploratory Phase in L.S.D Research\u201d (1965), 1\u20132, https:\/\/guides.hsict.library.utoronto.ca\/CAMHLibrarySpecialCollections\/ARF_Substudies."},{"key":"r54","unstructured":"Smart et al. \u201cA Controlled Trial of Lysergide,\u201d 471."},{"key":"r55","unstructured":"Reginald Smart et al.Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) in the Treatment of Alcoholism: An Investigation of Its Effects on Drinking Behavior, Personality Structure, and Social Functioning(Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967), 63."},{"key":"r56","unstructured":"Smart et al.Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, 63."},{"key":"r57","unstructured":"Baker, \u201cLSD Psychotherapy,\u201d 199."},{"key":"r58","unstructured":"Smart et al.Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, 64."},{"key":"r59","unstructured":"Smart et al. \u201cA Controlled Trial of Lysergide,\u201d 471."},{"key":"r60","unstructured":"Smart et al.Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, 65."},{"key":"r61","unstructured":"Smart et al., 89."},{"key":"r62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.15288\/qjsa.1967.28.140","volume":"28","author":"MacLean J. Ross","year":"1967","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol"},{"key":"r63","first-page":"147","volume":"28","author":"Fadiman James","year":"1967","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol"},{"key":"r64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1968.01740100124021","volume":"19","author":"Dahlberg Charles C.","year":"1968","journal-title":"Archives of General Psychiatry"},{"key":"r65","unstructured":"For more on their criticisms of controlled trials, see Dyck,Psychedelic Psychiatry, 48."},{"key":"r66","unstructured":"Provincial Archives of Saskatchewan [PAS], Hoffer Papers, A207, XVIII 32 c), Hoffer-Osmond Correspondence, 30 November 1968."},{"key":"r67","volume-title":"Psychedelics: The Uses and Implications of Hallucinogenic Drugs","author":"Hoffer Abram","year":"1970"},{"key":"r68","unstructured":"PAS, Hoffer-Osmond Correspondence, 30 November 1968."},{"issue":"6","key":"r69","first-page":"44","volume":"16","author":"Lewis David J.","year":"1968","journal-title":"Canada\u2019s Mental Health"},{"key":"r70","unstructured":"For more on Savage, see Oram,Trials of Psychedelic Therapy, 27\u201331."},{"key":"r71","first-page":"295","volume":"203","author":"Savage Charles","year":"1968","journal-title":"Journal of the American Medical Association"},{"key":"r72","unstructured":"BGPS, Savage Papers, MSP 70, Box 3, Folder 6, Charles Savage, \u201cReview of Toronto Study,\u201d unpublished draft, n.d."},{"key":"r73","unstructured":"Savage, \u201cReview,\u201d 5."},{"key":"r74","first-page":"47","volume-title":"Psychedelic Drug: Proceedings of a Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital Symposium","author":"Savage Charles","year":"1969"},{"key":"r75","unstructured":"Savage, \u201cReview,\u201d 2."},{"key":"r76","unstructured":"Smart et al. \u201cA Controlled Trial of Lysergide,\u201d 480\u201381."},{"key":"r77","unstructured":"Smart et al.Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, 84."},{"key":"r78","unstructured":"Smart et al., 63."},{"key":"r79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C.M.B. Pare, \u201cBook Review: Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) in the Treatment of Alcoholism,\u201dProceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine(1968): 1183.","DOI":"10.1177\/003591576806111P163"},{"key":"r80","unstructured":"Mary E. Purdy, \u201cLysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) in the Treatment of Alcoholism,\u201dCanadian Family Physician(1968): 87."},{"key":"r81","unstructured":"\u201cLSD \u2018Useless in Treatment of Alcoholism,\u201d\u2019Edmonton Journal, 31 October 1967, 28."},{"key":"r82","unstructured":"Smart et al.Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, 83\u201384."},{"key":"r83","unstructured":"Smart et al., 91\u201394."},{"issue":"3","key":"r84","first-page":"10","volume":"14","author":"Johnson F. Gordon","year":"1966","journal-title":"Canada\u2019s Mental Health"},{"key":"r85","first-page":"64","volume":"126","author":"Johnson F. Gordon","year":"1969","journal-title":"American Journal of Psychiatry"},{"key":"r86","unstructured":"For a discussion of these later controlled studies, see Oram,Trials of Psychedelic Therapy, 157\u201376."},{"key":"r87","unstructured":"\u201cDoctor Who Gave Truscott LSD Says Don\u2019t Ban It,\u201dToronto Star, 12 May 1967, 1\u20132."},{"key":"r88","first-page":"652","volume":"2","author":"Solursh Lionel","year":"1966","journal-title":"International Journal of Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"r89","unstructured":"Solursh, \u201cThe Use of LSD-25,\u201d 655."},{"key":"r90","first-page":"61","volume":"2","author":"Solursh Lionel","year":"1966","journal-title":"International Journal of Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"r91","unstructured":"Pam Hyatt Foster and Jeanine Locke, \u201cHow LSD Saved My Marriage,\u201dMaclean\u2019s, 5 November 1966, 91\u20131, 485\u20133 (emphasis in original)."},{"key":"r92","unstructured":"Foster and Locke, \u201cHow LSD Saved,\u201d 11, 48."},{"key":"r93","unstructured":"Foster and Locke, \u201cHow LSD Saved,\u201d 49, 52\u201353."},{"key":"r94","unstructured":"Foster and Locke, \u201cHow LSD Saved,\u201d 48."},{"key":"r95","unstructured":"Baker, \u201cLSD Psychotherapy,\u201d 206\u20137."},{"key":"r96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"William A. Richards,Sacred Knowledge: Psychedelics and Religious Experiences(New York: Columbia University Press, 2016), 188.","DOI":"10.7312\/columbia\/9780231174060.001.0001"},{"key":"r97","unstructured":"Dyck,Psychedelic Psychiatry, 113\u201314."},{"key":"r98","unstructured":"Dyck, \u201cJust Say \u2018Know,\u201d\u2019 188."},{"issue":"2","key":"r99","first-page":"14","volume":"35","author":"Baker Earle F.W.","year":"1967","journal-title":"Health"},{"key":"r100","unstructured":"Douglas Stuebing, \u201cI Watched LSD Trip \u2013 Not Again,\u201dTelegram, 24 March 1968."},{"key":"r101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1037\/h0029355","volume":"75","author":"Smart Reginald","year":"1970","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Psychology"},{"key":"r102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1968.03140350054015","volume":"205","author":"Solursh Lionel P.","year":"1968","journal-title":"Journal of the American Medical Association"},{"key":"r103","unstructured":"\u201cIncreases Reported in the Use of LSD by Metro Adults,\u201dToronto Star, 16 April 1968, 29."},{"key":"r104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marcel Martel,Not This Time: Canadians, Public Policy, and the Marijuana Question, 1961\u20131975(University of Toronto Press, 2006), 59.","DOI":"10.3138\/9781442627949"},{"key":"r105","unstructured":"\u201cQuiet Campaign Pushes Potential Good of LSD,\u201dGlobe and Mail, 4 October 1976, 5."},{"issue":"6601","key":"r106","first-page":"791","volume":"295","author":"Baker E.F.W.","year":"1987","journal-title":"British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Edition)"},{"key":"r107","unstructured":"\u201cLionel Solursh,\u201dAugusta Chronicle, 8 November 2013."},{"key":"r108","unstructured":"MacLean and Wilby, \u201cTreatment of Alcoholism,\u201d 142."},{"key":"r109","unstructured":"Dahlberg, \u201cLysergic Acid Diethylamide,\u201d 510."},{"key":"r110","unstructured":"Betty Grover Eisner,Remembrances of LSD Therapy Past(2002), 108."},{"key":"r111","unstructured":"Greg Gilman, \u201cHealth Canada Grants Special Access to Restricted Drugs for Psychedelic Therapy,\u201dPsychedelic Spotlight, 4 January 2022, https:\/\/psychedelicspotlight.com\/health-canada-psychedelic-therapy-special-access-programme-amendment\/."},{"key":"r112","unstructured":"See, for example, \u201cAfter a Year of Controversy, MAPS Canada Executive Director Mark Haden Announces Resignation,\u201dPsymposia, 19 February 2021, https:\/\/www.psymposia.com\/magazine\/haden-ball-maps-canada-resignation-5meo-dmt-practitioner-abuse\/."},{"key":"r113","unstructured":"Bethany Lindsay, \u201cFootage of Therapists Spooning and Pinning Down Patient in B.C. Trial for MDMA Therapy Prompts Review,\u201dCBC, 29 March 2022, https:\/\/www.cbc.ca\/news\/canada\/british-columbia\/bc-mdma-therapy-videos-1.6400256."}],"container-title":["Canadian Journal of Health History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/utpjournals.press\/doi\/pdf\/10.3138\/cjhh.594-062022","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,14]],"date-time":"2023-12-14T12:33:53Z","timestamp":1702557233000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/utpjournals.press\/doi\/10.3138\/cjhh.594-062022"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,1]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.3138\/cjhh.594-062022"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3138\/cjhh.594-062022","relation":{},"ISSN":["0823-2105","2371-0179"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0823-2105","type":"print"},{"value":"2371-0179","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,1]]}}}