{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,14]],"date-time":"2025-06-14T04:07:03Z","timestamp":1749874023328,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":122,"publisher":"University of Toronto Press Inc. (UTPress)","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Canadian Journal of Health History"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> Abstract. <\/jats:p><jats:p> This article examines the history of discrimination against women, Jews, Blacks, and Asians at the University of Toronto dental school from 1921 to 2000. The University of Toronto was the largest dental school in Canada. Discrimination could take various forms \u2013 the most obvious was a quota. As this article will show, although it was not a quota per se, the University of Toronto dental school discriminated against Jewish students in the admissions process at least until 1954 and possibly thereafter. There appears to have been no discrimination against women in the admission process, although there is evidence of discrimination against Asian applicants. In addition to discrimination around admissions, students and professors also subjected Jewish, female, and other minority students to daily acts of hostility (sometimes guised in the form of teasing) that made the atmosphere less than welcoming. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3138\/cjhh.698-052024","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,29]],"date-time":"2025-05-29T15:21:31Z","timestamp":1748532091000},"page":"68-101","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Diversity and Discrimination in Dentistry: The University of Toronto Faculty of Dentistry"],"prefix":"10.3138","volume":"42","author":[{"given":"Catherine","family":"Carstairs","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1696","reference":[{"volume-title":"Report of the Task Force on Misogyny, Sexism and Homophobia in Dalhousie University Faculty of Dentistry","year":"2015","author":"Backhouse Constance","key":"r1"},{"key":"r2","first-page":"15","volume-title":"Dental Manpower in Canada","author":"Canada","year":"1964"},{"key":"r3","first-page":"373","volume":"67","author":"Brown Timothy","year":"2001","journal-title":"Journal of the Canadian Dental Association"},{"key":"r4","first-page":"2","volume":"35","author":"Brady Patrick","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of American Indian Education"},{"key":"r5","unstructured":"\u201cColour, Colonialism and the McGill Redmen,\u201d posted 11 January 2019, by Suzanne Morton. YouTube, 6 min., 46 sec, https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=qfReCSFu5Xg."},{"volume-title":"Hya Yaka","year":"1966","key":"r6"},{"key":"r7","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1959, 57."},{"key":"r8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/cjh.49.3.369"},{"key":"r9","unstructured":"Constance Backhouse, Petticoats and Prejudice, 140\u201366; Cheryl Warsh, Prescribed Norms: Women and Health in Canada and the United States since 1800 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010), 175-222; Veronica Strong Boag, \u201cCanada's Women Doctors: Feminism Constrained\u201d in Linda Kealey, ed. A Not Unreasonable Claim: Women and Reform in Canada, 1880\u20131920s (Toronto: The Women's Press, 1979), 109\u2013130."},{"key":"r10","first-page":"2","volume":"19","author":"Duffin Jacalyn","year":"2002","journal-title":"Canadian Bulletin of Medical History"},{"key":"r11","unstructured":"Warsh, Prescribed Norms, 216."},{"key":"r12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tracey Adams, A Dentist and a Gentleman: Gender and the Rise of Dentistry in Ontario (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000), 145.","DOI":"10.3138\/9781442670297"},{"key":"r13","unstructured":"Adams, A Dentist and a Gentleman, 144."},{"key":"r14","unstructured":"Adams, A Dentist and a Gentleman, 148."},{"key":"r15","unstructured":"Adams, A Dentist and a Gentleman, 157."},{"key":"r16","unstructured":"Adams, A Dentist and a Gentleman, 157."},{"key":"r17","unstructured":"Duffin, \u201cThe Quota,\u201d 340."},{"key":"r18","unstructured":"UTA, 1982\u20130003 Volume 33, \u201cAdmission to Predental Year\u201d 7 September 1948."},{"key":"r19","first-page":"4","author":"James Mary E.","year":"1957","journal-title":"Globe and Mail"},{"key":"r20","first-page":"36","author":"Rex Kay","year":"1961","journal-title":"Globe and Mail"},{"volume-title":"University Affairs","year":"2020","author":"Glauser Wendy","key":"r21"},{"first-page":"374","volume-title":"Duffin, \u201cThe Queen's Jews,\u201d","author":"Bigham Blair","key":"r22"},{"key":"r23","unstructured":"Duffin, \u201cThe Queen's Jews,\u201d 269\u201394."},{"key":"r24","unstructured":"Warsh, Prescribed Norms, 216."},{"key":"r25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3138\/cbmh.13.1.29"},{"key":"r26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin Friedland, University of Toronto: A History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 382.","DOI":"10.3138\/9781442658875"},{"key":"r27","first-page":"1","volume":"15","author":"Levi Claude","year":"2003","journal-title":"Historical Studies in Education"},{"volume-title":"In Their Own Words: Jewish Doctors, Antisemitism and the Restrictive Quota System at the University of Toronto's Faculty of Medicine (Toronto: University of Toronto, 2022)","year":"2024","author":"Krongold Joanna","key":"r28"},{"key":"r29","unstructured":"Millar, Heap,\u00a0and Gidney, \u201cDegrees of Difference,\u201d 176."},{"key":"r30","unstructured":"Funk\u00e9 Aladejebe, Schooling the System: A History of Black Women Teachers (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2021), 185\u20136, n.7."},{"key":"r31","first-page":"55","volume-title":"\u201cToo Asian?\u201d: Racism, Privilege and Post-Secondary Education","author":"Perry Adele","year":"2012"},{"key":"r32","unstructured":"For blackface photos, see Hya Yaka, 1948, n.p. Hya Yaka, 1951, n.p. Hya Yaka, 1975, 87."},{"key":"r33","unstructured":"University of Toronto Menorah Society executive, 1929, Ontario Jewish Archives, Toronto, Ontario. https:\/\/search.ontariojewisharchives.org\/Permalink\/descriptions273633."},{"key":"#cr-split#-r34.1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Louis Rosenberg, Canada's Jews: A Social and Economic Study of Jews in Canada in the 1930s (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993), 194","DOI":"10.1515\/9780773563940"},{"key":"#cr-split#-r34.2","unstructured":"Census of Canada 1931, Volume 7: Occupations and Industries, 72."},{"key":"r35","unstructured":"Millar, Heap\u00a0and Gidney, \u201cDegrees of Difference,\u201d 165."},{"key":"r36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edward Shorter, Partnership for Excellence: Medicine at the University of Toronto and Academic Hospitals (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013), 542: Krongold, In Their Own Words, 15\u20136.","DOI":"10.3138\/9781442664036"},{"key":"r37","unstructured":"Torontonensis, 1924, 232. It is not clear who wrote this."},{"key":"r38","unstructured":"Gerald Tulchisky, Canada's Jews: A People's Journey (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008), 499."},{"key":"r39","unstructured":"University of Toronto \u2013 Department of Admissions, University of Toronto Archives, A1969-0008."},{"key":"r40","unstructured":"Torontonensis, 1924, 366, accessed 3 March 2025, https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/torontonensis24univ\/page\/366\/mode\/2up."},{"key":"r41","unstructured":"Ontario Jewish Archives (hereafter OJA), Fonds 112, Box 5, File 11, Address by John A. Sherman, n.d. circa 1971."},{"key":"r42","unstructured":"A. Lipson, Torontonensis, 1928, 102."},{"volume-title":"None is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe, 1933\u20131948","year":"2000","author":"Abella Irving","key":"r43"},{"key":"r44","unstructured":"University of Toronto Archives (hereafter UTA) , A1982-0003 Box 33, Minutes, 9 September 1942."},{"key":"r45","unstructured":"UTA, A1982-0003 Box 33, Minutes, Admission Committee, 28 August 1942."},{"key":"r46","unstructured":"UTA, A1982-0003 Box 33, Minutes, 23 September 1949."},{"key":"r47","unstructured":"UTA, A1982-0003, Box 33, Minutes, 23 September 1949."},{"key":"r48","unstructured":"I'm not providing yearbook data here, as this would allow the students to be identified, which is not allowed, according to the research agreement signed with the University of Toronto archives."},{"key":"r49","unstructured":"UTA, A1982-0003, Box 16, \u201cReport on Aptitude Tests in the Faculty of Dentistry,\u201d 10 February 1947."},{"key":"r50","unstructured":"UTA, A1982-0003, Box 34, 6 July 1950."},{"key":"r51","unstructured":"UTA, A1982-0003, Box 34, Minutes, 7 September 1950."},{"key":"r52","unstructured":"OJA, Fonds 112 Box 1, File 7, Secretary's Report, December 1956."},{"key":"r53","unstructured":"OJA, Fonds 112, Box 8, Annual Bulletin of the Toronto Alumni Chapter 1949\u201350."},{"key":"r54","unstructured":"Canadian Jewish News, 20 September 1984, 21."},{"volume-title":"In Their Own Words","author":"Krongold","key":"r55"},{"key":"r56","unstructured":"Shorter, Partnership for Excellence, 546\u20137."},{"key":"r57","unstructured":"OJA, Fonds 112, Box 4, File 1, \u201cHistory of Pi\u201d."},{"key":"r58","unstructured":"OJA, Fonds 112, Box 1, Executive Committee Minutes; Hya Yaka, 1955, 60."},{"key":"r59","unstructured":"Census of Canada, 1951, Volume 4, Table 12. 7.7% of all dentists were Jewish. At the time, only 1.3% of the Canadian population was Jewish. Census of Canada, 1951, Volume 1."},{"key":"r60","first-page":"2","volume":"1","author":"OJA","year":"1959","journal-title":"Aorta"},{"key":"r61","unstructured":"There is no indication in the yearbook write-ups that these students intended to stay in Canada. I also could not find any records of them practicing in Canada."},{"journal-title":"Calgary Herald","first-page":"17","year":"1936","key":"r62"},{"first-page":"91","volume-title":"Hya Yaka","year":"1942","key":"r63"},{"issue":"3","key":"r64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.4103\/0972-124X.100896","volume":"16","author":"D'Silva Ingrid","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of the Indian Society of Periodontology"},{"key":"r65","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1942, 95."},{"key":"r66","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1966, 58."},{"volume-title":"Too Asian?\u201d: Racism, Privilege and Post-Secondary Education","year":"2012","author":"Jeet Heer","key":"r67"},{"key":"r68","unstructured":"\u201cOral History with Norman Kwan conducted by Ruth Belay and Daniela Ansovini,\u201d 28 January 2020, https:\/\/discoverarchives.library.utoronto.ca\/index.php\/transcript-6."},{"key":"r69","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1988, 134."},{"key":"r70","unstructured":"In 1988, there were 27 identifiably Asian students, 9 of them were missing yearbook write-ups or 41%. By contrast, of the other 75 students, only 10 were missing yearbook write-ups or 13%."},{"key":"r71","unstructured":"Perry, \u201cGraduating Photos,\u201d 65."},{"key":"r72","first-page":"34","author":"Brophy T. R.","year":"1941","journal-title":"Windsor Star"},{"key":"r73","first-page":"30","volume-title":"Hya Yaka","author":"Perry Roy","year":"1940"},{"key":"r74","unstructured":"\u201cSkating Parties,\u201d Windsor Mosaic: African Canadian Community, accessed 19 December 2023, http:\/\/www.windsor-communities.com\/african-cele-parties.php."},{"key":"r75","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1940, 105."},{"key":"r76","unstructured":"\u201cFenn School Project Sparks Family Reunion,\u201d Wicked Local, 26 October 2007, https:\/\/www.wickedlocal.com\/story\/concord-journal\/2007\/10\/26\/fenn-school-project-sparks-family\/40769397007\/."},{"key":"r77","unstructured":"Torontonensis, 1947, 185\u20136; Jocelyn Hezekiah, \u201cDame Nita Barrow and the development of Black nursing leaders in the West Indies,\u201d The UKAHN Bulletin 9, no. 1 (2021), accessed 21 May 2024, https:\/\/bulletin.ukahn.org\/dame-nita-barrow-and-the-development-of-black-nursing-leaders-in-the-west-indies\/."},{"volume-title":"Rebel Dad: Triumphing Over Bureaucracy to Adopt Two Orphans Born Worlds Apart","year":"2018","author":"McKistry David R. I.","key":"r78"},{"volume-title":"Fighting the Active Horse of Prejudice: Diversity Champion and Inclusion Activist Arlington Franklin Dungy","key":"r79"},{"volume-title":"Hya Yaka","year":"1964","key":"r80"},{"volume-title":"Farel Anderson: Alumni of Influence","year":"1966","author":"Hya Yaka","key":"r81"},{"key":"r82","unstructured":"\u201cBygrave Family Dental,\u201d accessed 21 May 2024, http:\/\/www.drmlbygrave.com\/about-us\/."},{"key":"r83","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1966, 102. His face is in a shadow so it's hard to tell who the student is."},{"volume-title":"Hya Yaka","year":"1975","key":"r84"},{"key":"r85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3138\/9781487538781","volume-title":"Colour Matters: Essays on the Experiences, Education and Pursuits of Black Youth","author":"James Carl","year":"2021"},{"key":"r86","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1983, n.p."},{"key":"#cr-split#-r87.1","unstructured":"In 1954, 1% of dentists were female and by 1965, 2.2% of dentists were female. \"Statistical Data - Dental Personnel,\" Journal of the Canadian Dental Association 20 (1954): 281"},{"key":"#cr-split#-r87.2","unstructured":"Bureau of Economic Research \"Dental Personnel in Canada,\" Journal of the Canadian Dental Association 31 (1965): 582."},{"key":"r88","unstructured":"Canada, Medical Manpower in Canada (Ottawa, 1964), 11."},{"key":"r89","volume":"78","author":"MacKay Julia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of the Canadian Dental Association"},{"key":"r90","first-page":"2","volume":"16","author":"Adams Tracy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Historical Studies in Education"},{"key":"r91","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1938, 56."},{"key":"r92","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1939, 33."},{"first-page":"99","volume-title":"Hya Yaka","year":"1939","key":"r93"},{"volume-title":"Dental Education in Canada","year":"1965","author":"Royal Commission on Health Services","key":"r94"},{"first-page":"6","volume-title":"Dentistry as a Professional Career","year":"1958","key":"r95"},{"volume":"7","volume-title":"Dentistry as a Professional Career","key":"r96"},{"key":"r97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-0424.12484","volume":"33","author":"Carstairs Catherine","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gender and History"},{"key":"r98","unstructured":"Canada, Dental Manpower, 65."},{"key":"r99","unstructured":"Canada, Dental Manpower, 64."},{"key":"r100","unstructured":"Canada, Royal Commission on Health Services, 62."},{"key":"r101","unstructured":"UTA, A1982-0003 Vol. 34, Extract of Report No. 50 of the Applications and Memorials Committee, 1 March 1950. For licensing requirements, see Royal Commission on Health Services, 556."},{"key":"r102","unstructured":"For many of the students, there was no information on where they attended high school."},{"key":"r103","unstructured":"Royal Commission on Health Services, 63."},{"key":"r104","unstructured":"Canada, Dental Manpower, 66\u201374."},{"first-page":"7","volume-title":"Globe and Mail","year":"1944","key":"r105"},{"key":"r106","unstructured":"Dentistry as a Professional Career, 6."},{"key":"r107","unstructured":"C. Wypkema\u00a0and A.M. Hunt, Women and Dentistry as a Profession: A Review Paper (Toronto: Faculty of Dentistry, 1975), 6\u20137."},{"key":"r108","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1955, 19."},{"key":"r109","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1958, 14."},{"key":"r110","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1955, 35."},{"key":"r111","unstructured":"See Hya Yaka, 1975, 103\u20134; Hya Yaka, 1979, 96; Hya Yaka, 1980, 92; Hya Yaka, 1981, n.p."},{"volume-title":"Hya Yaka","year":"1975","key":"r112"},{"volume-title":"Hya Yaka","year":"1975","key":"r113"},{"key":"r114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1984, 66\u201367.","DOI":"10.5179\/benthos1981.1984.66"},{"key":"r115","unstructured":"Hya Yaka, 1984, 98."},{"key":"r116","unstructured":"\u201cMalcolm Yasny Obituary,\u201d accessed 10 May 2024, https:\/\/www.legacy.com\/ca\/obituaries\/thestar\/name\/malcom-yasny-obituary?id=40209055."},{"volume-title":"CE Showcase ASM2017: Volunteerism: An Opportunity to Give Back","key":"r117"},{"issue":"5","key":"r118","first-page":"439","volume":"60","author":"Crawford F. Ralph","year":"1994","journal-title":"JCDA"},{"volume-title":"The Smile Gap: The History of Oral Health and Social Inequality","year":"2022","author":"Carstairs Catherine","key":"r119"},{"journal-title":"AAMC News","year":"2023","author":"Boyle Patrick","key":"r120"}],"container-title":["Canadian Journal of Health History"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/utppublishing.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.3138\/cjhh.698-052024","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,13]],"date-time":"2025-06-13T17:15:39Z","timestamp":1749834939000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/utppublishing.com\/doi\/10.3138\/cjhh.698-052024"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]},"references-count":122,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.3138\/cjhh.698-052024"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3138\/cjhh.698-052024","relation":{},"ISSN":["2816-6469","2816-6477"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"2816-6469"},{"type":"electronic","value":"2816-6477"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]}}}