{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T03:00:40Z","timestamp":1791255640708,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":622,"publisher":"Journal of Neurosurgery Publishing Group (JNSPG)","issue":"6","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["FOC"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Fossil records showing trephination in the Stone Age provide evidence that humans have sought to influence the mind through physical means since before the historical record. Attempts to treat psychiatric disease via neurosurgical means in the 20th century provided some intriguing initial results. However, the indiscriminate application of these treatments, lack of rigorous evaluation of the results, and the side effects of ablative, irreversible procedures resulted in a backlash against brain surgery for psychiatric disorders that continues to this day. With the advent of psychotropic medications, interest in invasive procedures for organic brain disease waned.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>Diagnosis and classification of psychiatric diseases has improved, due to a better understanding of psychiatric patho-physiology and the development of disease and treatment biomarkers. Meanwhile, a significant percentage of patients remain refractory to multiple modes of treatment, and psychiatric disease remains the number one cause of disability in the world. These data, along with the safe and efficacious application of deep brain stimulation (DBS) for movement disorders, in principle a reversible process, is rekindling interest in the surgical treatment of psychiatric disorders with stimulation of deep brain sites involved in emotional and behavioral circuitry.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>This review presents a brief history of psychosurgery and summarizes the development of DBS for psychiatric disease, reviewing the available evidence for the current application of DBS for disorders of the mind.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3171\/2015.3.focus1546","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,6,1]],"date-time":"2015-06-01T09:07:57Z","timestamp":1433149677000},"page":"E2","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":84,"title":["Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders: where we are now"],"prefix":"10.3171","volume":"38","author":[{"given":"Daniel R.","family":"Cleary","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Yale Medical School, New Haven, Connecticut;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alp","family":"Ozpinar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon; and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed M.","family":"Raslan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon; and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew L.","family":"Ko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1754","reference":[{"key":"b1-focus1546","series-title":"Biol Psychiatry","first-page":"510","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"57","author":"Abelson","year":"2005"},{"key":"b2-focus1546","series-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry","first-page":"1068","article-title":"Long-term outcome of thalamic deep brain stimulation in two patients with Tourette syndrome","volume":"81","author":"Ackermans","year":"2010"},{"key":"b3-focus1546","series-title":"Brain","first-page":"832","article-title":"Double-blind clinical trial of thalamic stimulation in patients with Tourette syndrome","volume":"134","author":"Ackermans","year":"2011"},{"key":"b4-focus1546","series-title":"Mov Disord","first-page":"709","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation in Tourette\u2019s syndrome: two targets?","volume":"21","author":"Ackermans","year":"2006"},{"key":"b5-focus1546","series-title":"Psychiatr Genet","first-page":"90","article-title":"Genetic and functional studies of a missense variant in a glutamate transporter, SLC1A3, in Tourette syndrome","volume":"21","author":"Adamczyk","year":"2011"},{"key":"b6-focus1546","series-title":"Harv Rev Psychiatry","first-page":"305","article-title":"Neurobiologic processes in drug reward and addiction","volume":"12","author":"Adinoff","year":"2004"},{"key":"b7-focus1546","series-title":"Nature","first-page":"669","article-title":"Impaired recognition of emotion in facial expressions following bilateral damage to the human amygdala","volume":"372","author":"Adolphs","year":"1994"},{"key":"b8-focus1546","series-title":"Brain Res","first-page":"347","article-title":"Cortical and subcortical afferents to the amygdala of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)","volume":"190","author":"Aggleton","year":"1980"},{"key":"b9-focus1546","series-title":"Neuron","first-page":"537","article-title":"Beautiful faces have variable reward value: fMRI and behavioral evidence","volume":"32","author":"Aharon","year":"2001"},{"key":"b10-focus1546","series-title":"Patient Prefer Adherence","first-page":"369","article-title":"Treatment-resistant depression: therapeutic trends, challenges, and future directions","volume":"6","author":"Al-Harbi","year":"2012"},{"key":"b11-focus1546","series-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry","first-page":"394","article-title":"Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"70","author":"Alegret","year":"2001"},{"key":"b12-focus1546","series-title":"Nature","first-page":"360","article-title":"Evidence for stone age cranial surgery","volume":"387","author":"Alt","year":"1997"},{"key":"b13-focus1546","series-title":"Clin Psychol Rev","first-page":"638","article-title":"What is the association between obsessive-compulsive disorder and eating disorders?","volume":"29","author":"Altman","year":"2009"},{"key":"b14-focus1546","series-title":"J Neurosurg","first-page":"1104","article-title":"Treatment of patients with intractable obsessive-compulsive disorder with anterior capsular stimulation. 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