{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,28]],"date-time":"2026-09-28T18:47:18Z","timestamp":1790621238741,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":298,"publisher":"Journal of Neurosurgery Publishing Group (JNSPG)","issue":"5","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["FOC"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Hydrocephalus, despite its heterogeneous causes, is ultimately a disease of disordered CSF homeostasis that results in pathological expansion of the cerebral ventricles. Our current understanding of the pathophysiology of hydrocephalus is inadequate but evolving. Over this past century, the majority of hydrocephalus cases has been explained by functional or anatomical obstructions to bulk CSF flow. More recently, hydrodynamic models of hydrocephalus have emphasized the role of abnormal intracranial pulsations in disease pathogenesis. Here, the authors review the molecular mechanisms of CSF secretion by the choroid plexus epithelium, the most efficient and actively secreting epithelium in the human body, and provide experimental and clinical evidence for the role of increased CSF production in hydrocephalus. Although the choroid plexus epithelium might have only an indirect influence on the pathogenesis of many types of pediatric hydrocephalus, the ability to modify CSF secretion with drugs newer than acetazolamide or furosemide would be an invaluable component of future therapies to alleviate permanent shunt dependence. Investigation into the human genetics of developmental hydrocephalus and choroid plexus hyperplasia, and the molecular physiology of the ion channels and transporters responsible for CSF secretion, might yield novel targets that could be exploited for pharmacotherapeutic intervention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3171\/2016.8.focus16278","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,1]],"date-time":"2016-11-01T03:38:03Z","timestamp":1477971483000},"page":"E10","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":68,"title":["Cerebrospinal fluid hypersecretion in pediatric hydrocephalus"],"prefix":"10.3171","volume":"41","author":[{"given":"Jason K.","family":"Karimy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Duran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jamie K.","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charuta","family":"Gavankar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonathan R.","family":"Gaillard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yasar","family":"Bayri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, Marmara University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey; and\u00a0"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hunter","family":"Rice","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael L.","family":"DiLuna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Volodymyr","family":"Gerzanich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Neurosurgery and"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J.","family":"Marc Simard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Neurosurgery and"},{"name":"Pathology and Physiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kristopher T.","family":"Kahle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Neurosurgery and"},{"name":"Pediatrics, Cellular, and Molecular Physiology and Centers for Mendelian Genomics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut;"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1754","reference":[{"key":"b1-focus16278","series-title":"Neurochem Int","first-page":"545","article-title":"Evidence for bulk flow of brain interstitial fluid: significance for physiology and pathology","volume":"45","author":"Abbott","year":"2004"},{"key":"b2-focus16278","series-title":"Hypertension","first-page":"860","article-title":"Sodium transport in the choroid plexus and salt-sensitive hypertension","volume":"54","author":"Amin","year":"2009"},{"key":"b3-focus16278","series-title":"Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo)","first-page":"437","article-title":"Hydrocephalus due to diffuse villous hyperplasia of the choroid plexus","volume":"51","author":"Anei","year":"2011"},{"key":"b4-focus16278","series-title":"Pediatr Radiol","first-page":"815","article-title":"Diffuse choroid plexus hyperplasia: an under-diagnosed cause of hydrocephalus in children?","volume":"35","author":"Aziz","year":"2005"},{"key":"b5-focus16278","series-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol","first-page":"2432","article-title":"Resolved: capillary endothelium is a major contributor to the glomerular filtration barrier","volume":"18","author":"Ballermann","year":"2007"},{"key":"b6-focus16278","series-title":"Development","first-page":"5329","article-title":"Dysfunctional cilia lead to altered ependyma and choroid plexus function, and result in the formation of hydrocephalus","volume":"132","author":"Banizs","year":"2005"},{"key":"b7-focus16278","series-title":"Neuropediatrics","first-page":"183","article-title":"An association between external hydrocephalus in infants and reversible collapse of the venous sinuses","volume":"45","author":"Bateman","year":"2014"},{"key":"b8-focus16278","series-title":"Childs Nerv Syst","first-page":"55","article-title":"The measurement of CSF flow through the aqueduct in normal and hydrocephalic children: from where does it come, to where does it go?","volume":"28","author":"Bateman","year":"2012"},{"key":"b9-focus16278","series-title":"Stroke","first-page":"1956","article-title":"Inhibition of wnk3 kinase signaling reduces brain damage and accelerates neurological recovery after stroke","volume":"46","author":"Begum","year":"2015"},{"key":"b10-focus16278","series-title":"J Neurosurg","first-page":"405","article-title":"Circulation of the cerebrospinal fluid. Demonstration of the choroid plexuses as the generator of the force for flow of fluid and ventricular enlargement","volume":"19","author":"Bering","year":"1962"},{"key":"b11-focus16278","series-title":"J Neurosurg Pediatr","first-page":"398","article-title":"Treatment of choroid plexus tumors: a 20-year single institutional experience","volume":"10","author":"Bettegowda","year":"2012"},{"key":"b12-focus16278","series-title":"Nature","first-page":"S155","article-title":"Reducing neurodevelopmental disorders and disability through research and interventions","volume":"527","author":"Boivin","year":"2015"},{"key":"b13-focus16278","series-title":"Fluids Barriers CNS","first-page":"10","article-title":"A new look at cerebrospinal fluid circulation.","volume":"11","author":"Brinker","year":"2014"},{"key":"b14-focus16278","series-title":"J Neurosurg","first-page":"689","article-title":"Hydrocephalus secondary to diffuse villous hyperplasia of the choroid plexus. 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Possible implications in the pathophysiology of hypersecretory hydrocephalus","volume":"11","author":"Cardia","year":"1995"},{"key":"b17-focus16278","series-title":"Arch Dis Child","first-page":"68","article-title":"Use of acetazolamide to decrease cerebrospinal fluid production in chronically ventilated patients with ventriculopleural shunts","volume":"84","author":"Carrion","year":"2001"},{"key":"b18-focus16278","series-title":"Childs Nerv Syst","first-page":"332","article-title":"Cerebral fluid overproduction in the absence of tumor or villous hypertrophy of the choroid plexus","volume":"5","author":"Casey","year":"1989"},{"key":"b19-focus16278","series-title":"Fluids Barriers CNS","first-page":"18","article-title":"Aquaporin-4 expression in the cerebrospinal fluid in congenital human hydrocephalus.","volume":"10","author":"Casta\u00f1eyra-Ruiz","year":"2013"},{"key":"b20-focus16278","series-title":"J Neurosurg Pediatr","first-page":"518","article-title":"Diffuse villous hyperplasia of the choroid plexus and its surgical management","volume":"5","author":"Cataltepe","year":"2010"},{"key":"b21-focus16278","series-title":"Minerva Pediatr","first-page":"363","article-title":"[Hypersecretive congenital hydrocephalus due to choroid plexus villous hypertrophy associated with controlateral papilloma.]","volume":"45","author":"Ceddia","year":"1993"},{"key":"b22-focus16278","series-title":"J Clin Invest","first-page":"1077","article-title":"Mutation of the mouse hepatocyte nuclear factor\/forkhead homologue 4 gene results in an absence of cilia and random left-right asymmetry","volume":"102","author":"Chen","year":"1998"},{"key":"b23-focus16278","series-title":"Front Physiol","first-page":"304","article-title":"Na+ dependent acid-base transporters in the choroid plexus insights from slc4 and slc9 gene deletion studies.","volume":"4","author":"Christensen","year":"2013"},{"key":"b24-focus16278","series-title":"Front Physiol","first-page":"344","article-title":"Polarization of membrane associated proteins in the choroid plexus epithelium from normal and slc4a10 knockout mice.","volume":"4","author":"Christensen","year":"2013"},{"key":"b25-focus16278","series-title":"J Med Res","first-page":"1","article-title":"Studies on the cerebrospinal fluid: I. 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secretion","volume":"442","author":"Johansson","year":"2008"},{"key":"b70-focus16278","series-title":"J Appl Physiol","first-page":"1591","article-title":"Chloride flux from blood to CSF: inhibition by furosemide and bumetanide","volume":"63","author":"Johnson","year":"1985"},{"key":"b71-focus16278","series-title":"Lancet","first-page":"788","article-title":"Hydrocephalus in children","volume":"387","author":"Kahle","year":"2016"},{"key":"b72-focus16278","series-title":"Annu Rev Physiol","first-page":"329","article-title":"Molecular physiology of the WNK kinases","volume":"70","author":"Kahle","year":"2008"},{"key":"b73-focus16278","series-title":"Physiology (Bethesda)","first-page":"257","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of ischemic cerebral edema: role of electroneutral ion transport","volume":"24","author":"Kahle","year":"2009"},{"key":"b74-focus16278","series-title":"J Neurosci Methods","first-page":"78","article-title":"A novel method to study cerebrospinal fluid dynamics in 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Fluid Res","first-page":"16","article-title":"Intraventricular infusion of hyperosmolar dextran induces hydrocephalus: a novel animal model of hydrocephalus.","volume":"6","author":"Krishnamurthy","year":"2009"},{"key":"b80-focus16278","series-title":"J Neurosurg Pediatr","first-page":"224","article-title":"Endoscopic third ventriculostomy and choroid plexus cauterization in infants with hydrocephalus: a retrospective Hydrocephalus Clinical Research Network study","volume":"14","author":"Kulkarni","year":"2014"},{"key":"b81-focus16278","series-title":"Childs Nerv Syst","first-page":"139","article-title":"Choroid plexectomy for the treatment of chronic infected hydrocephalus","volume":"4","author":"Lapras","year":"1988"},{"key":"b82-focus16278","series-title":"J Neurosci","first-page":"17553","article-title":"The choroid plexus and cerebrospinal fluid: emerging roles in development, disease, and 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Neurosurg","first-page":"1427","article-title":"An update on research priorities in hydrocephalus: overview of the third National Institutes of Health\u2013sponsored symposium \u201cOpportunities for Hydrocephalus Research: Pathways to Better Outcomes\u201d","volume":"123","author":"McAllister","year":"2015"},{"key":"b88-focus16278","series-title":"J Pharmacol Exp Ther","first-page":"194","article-title":"The effect of acetazolamide and furosemide on cerebrospinal fluid production and choroid plexus carbonic anhydrase activity","volume":"189","author":"McCarthy","year":"1974"},{"key":"b89-focus16278","series-title":"Science","first-page":"1514","article-title":"Choroid plexus and cerebrospinal fluid production","volume":"166","author":"Milhorat","year":"1969"},{"key":"b90-focus16278","series-title":"Childs Brain","first-page":"273","article-title":"Choroid plexus papilloma. 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hypercalcemia","volume":"47","author":"Murphy","year":"1986"},{"key":"b95-focus16278","series-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A","first-page":"7275","article-title":"Distribution of the aquaporin CHIP in secretory and resorptive epithelia and capillary endothelia","volume":"90","author":"Nielsen","year":"1993"},{"key":"b96-focus16278","series-title":"J Neurosurg Pediatr","first-page":"342","article-title":"Single-stage bilateral choroid plexectomy for choroid plexus papilloma in a patient presenting with high cerebrospinal fluid output","volume":"5","author":"Nimjee","year":"2010"},{"key":"b97-focus16278","series-title":"Neurosci Lett","first-page":"162","article-title":"Localization of acetazolamide-resistant carbonic anhydrase III in human and rat choroid plexus by immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridisation","volume":"151","author":"N\u00f3gr\u00e1di","year":"1993"},{"key":"b98-focus16278","series-title":"Childs Nerv Syst","first-page":"662","article-title":"Proposal of 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