{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T16:07:07Z","timestamp":1776096427040,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"Journal of Neurosurgery Publishing Group (JNSPG)","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>OBJECTIVE<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Mechanisms and patterns of severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) in infants and toddlers are different from adults and even from older children, but there is no taxonomy of injuries that can provide a basis for individualized care. The current project was undertaken as a proof of concept to demonstrate that a taxonomy can be constructed with clinical correlations.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>METHODS<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Data were taken from the American College of Surgeons Trauma Quality Improvement Program for the years 2014 through 2022. Inclusion criteria were an age &lt; 2 years and Abbreviated Injury Scale head score of 4, 5, or 6. Latent class analysis (LCA) was performed based on covariates reflecting socioeconomic status, access to definitive care, mechanism of injury, severity of injury, and pathology.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>RESULTS<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>There were 3735 cases meeting study inclusion criteria. Overall mortality among cases with a known outcome was 19%, and 70% of discharges were routine. Intracranial monitoring was coded for 28% of cases. An LCA model with 4 classes was studied. The mortality rates of the 4 classes were highly distinct at 2%, 13%, 37%, and 65%, respectively. The routine discharge rates were similarly distinct at 92%, 66%, 41%, and 12%, respectively. The rates of intracranial monitoring varied much more narrowly between 26% and 39%.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>CONCLUSIONS<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A scheme for classifying injuries based on LCA had powerful associations with outcomes and proves that a clinically meaningful taxonomy of severe TBI in the very young is possible. The fact that 25% of cases with the best prognosis underwent intracranial monitoring and only 37% of cases with the worst prognosis did so demonstrates the need for an evidence-based taxonomy to guide individualized care. Large-scale prospective study may define categories that are conceptually accessible rather than latent and that guide therapies as well as predict outcomes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3171\/2025.9.peds25308","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,24]],"date-time":"2026-01-24T02:09:01Z","timestamp":1769220541000},"page":"328-336","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Severe traumatic brain injury in the very young: data from the Trauma Quality Improvement Program"],"prefix":"10.3171","volume":"37","author":[{"given":"Joseph","family":"Piatt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurosurgery, Nemours Children\u2019s Hospital Delaware, Wilmington, Delaware;"},{"name":"Departments of Neurological Surgery and Pediatrics, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1754","reference":[{"key":"b1","article-title":"Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant","author":"Raimondi AJ","year":"1986","unstructured":"Raimondi AJ, Choux M, Di Rocco C. Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant. Springer-Verlag;1986."},{"key":"b2","series-title":"Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant","first-page":"141","article-title":"Clinical criteria - the Children\u2019s Coma Score and Outcome Scale - for decision making in managing head-injured infants and toddlers","author":"Raimondi AJ","year":"1986","unstructured":"Raimondi AJ, Hirschauer J. Clinical criteria - the Children\u2019s Coma Score and Outcome Scale - for decision making in managing head-injured infants and toddlers. In: Raimondi AJ, Choux M, Di Rocco C, eds. Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant. Springer-Verlag; 1986:141-150."},{"key":"b3","series-title":"Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant","first-page":"257","article-title":"Outcomes of craniocerebral trauma in infants","author":"Hoffman HJ","year":"1986","unstructured":"Hoffman HJ, Tacholarn C. Outcomes of craniocerebral trauma in infants. In: Raimondi AJ, Choux M, Di Rocco C, eds. Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant. Springer-Verlag;1986:257-262."},{"issue":"3","key":"b4","series-title":"J Neurosurg","first-page":"409","article-title":"The shaken baby syndrome. A clinical, pathological, and biomechanical study","volume":"66","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"1987","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Bruce DA, Margulies SS, Wiser R. The shaken baby syndrome. A clinical, pathological, and biomechanical study. J Neurosurg. 1987;66(3):409\u2013415."},{"issue":"2 Pt 1","key":"b5","series-title":"Pediatrics","first-page":"179","article-title":"Head injury in very young children: mechanisms, injury types, and ophthalmologic findings in 100 hospitalized patients younger than 2 years of age","volume":"90","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"1992","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Alario AJ, Lewander WJ,  Head injury in very young children: mechanisms, injury types, and ophthalmologic findings in 100 hospitalized patients younger than 2 years of age. Pediatrics. 1992;90(2 Pt 1):179\u2013185."},{"issue":"25","key":"b6","series-title":"N Engl J Med","first-page":"1822","article-title":"Nonaccidental head injury in infants\u2013the \"shaken-baby syndrome.\"","volume":"338","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"1998","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Christian CW, Rorke LB, Zimmerman RA. Nonaccidental head injury in infants\u2013the \"shaken-baby syndrome.\" N Engl J Med. 1998;338(25):1822\u20131829."},{"issue":"5","key":"b7","series-title":"J Neurosurg Pediatr","first-page":"481","article-title":"Abusive head trauma: evidence, obfuscation, and informed management","volume":"24","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"2019","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Christian CW. Abusive head trauma: evidence, obfuscation, and informed management. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2019;24(5):481\u2013488."},{"issue":"2","key":"b8","series-title":"J Clin Pathol","first-page":"185","article-title":"Diffuse axonal injury in early infancy","volume":"40","author":"Vowles GH","year":"1987","unstructured":"Vowles GH, Scholtz CL, Cameron JM. Diffuse axonal injury in early infancy. J Clin Pathol. 1987;40(2):185\u2013189."},{"issue":"5","key":"b9","series-title":"Br J Neurosurg","first-page":"533","article-title":"Extradural haematoma in infants","volume":"3","author":"Leggate JR","year":"1989","unstructured":"Leggate JR, Lopez-Ramos N, Genitori L, Lena G, Choux M. Extradural haematoma in infants. Br J Neurosurg. 1989;3(5):533\u2013539."},{"issue":"4","key":"b10","series-title":"Br J Neurosurg","first-page":"355","article-title":"The pathophysiology of infant subdural haematomas","volume":"7","author":"Howard MA","year":"1993","unstructured":"Howard MA, Bell BA, Uttley D. The pathophysiology of infant subdural haematomas. Br J Neurosurg. 1993;7(4):355\u2013365."},{"issue":"1","key":"b11","series-title":"Childs Nerv Syst","first-page":"34","article-title":"Head injuries in children under 36 months of age. Demography and outcome","volume":"4","author":"Hahn YS","year":"1988","unstructured":"Hahn YS, Chyung C, Barthel MJ, Bailes J, Flannery AM, McLone DG. Head injuries in children under 36 months of age. Demography and outcome. Childs Nerv Syst. 1988;4(1):34\u201340."},{"issue":"9","key":"b12","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"729","article-title":"CHOP Infant Coma Scale (\"Infant Face Scale\"): a novel coma scale for children less than two years of age","volume":"17","author":"Durham SR","year":"2000","unstructured":"Durham SR, Clancy RR, Leuthardt E,  CHOP Infant Coma Scale (\"Infant Face Scale\"): a novel coma scale for children less than two years of age. J Neurotrauma. 2000;17(9):729\u2013737."},{"issue":"4","key":"b13","series-title":"Pediatr Neurosurg","first-page":"206","article-title":"Acute subdural hematoma associated with cerebral infarction in the full-term neonate","volume":"23","author":"Steinbok P","year":"1995","unstructured":"Steinbok P, Haw CS, Cochrane DD, Kestle JR. Acute subdural hematoma associated with cerebral infarction in the full-term neonate. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1995;23(4):206\u2013215."},{"issue":"5","key":"b14","series-title":"Cureus","first-page":"e8011","article-title":"Big black brain phenomenon: understanding clinicoradiological dissociation in non-accidental traumatic brain injury in children","volume":"12","author":"Beriwal N","year":"2020","unstructured":"Beriwal N, Misko AL, Duhaime AC. Big black brain phenomenon: understanding clinicoradiological dissociation in non-accidental traumatic brain injury in children. Cureus. 2020;12(5):e8011."},{"key":"b15","series-title":"Prog Brain Res","first-page":"293","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury in infants: the phenomenon of subdural hemorrhage with hemispheric hypodensity (\"big black brain\")","volume":"161","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"2007","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Durham S. Traumatic brain injury in infants: the phenomenon of subdural hemorrhage with hemispheric hypodensity (\"big black brain\"). Prog Brain Res. 2007;161:293\u2013302."},{"key":"b16","series-title":"J Neurol Sci","first-page":"122904","article-title":"Factors influencing the development of infantile traumatic brain injury with a biphasic clinical course and late reduced diffusion","volume":"457","author":"Yasukohchi M","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yasukohchi M, Omata T, Ochiai K,  Factors influencing the development of infantile traumatic brain injury with a biphasic clinical course and late reduced diffusion. J Neurol Sci. 2024;457:122904."},{"key":"b17","series-title":"J Neurol Sci","first-page":"123228","article-title":"Pathomechanism of infantile traumatic brain injury with a biphasic clinical course and late reduced diffusion evaluated by MR spectroscopy","volume":"466","author":"Yasukohchi M","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yasukohchi M, Omata T, Ochiai K,  Pathomechanism of infantile traumatic brain injury with a biphasic clinical course and late reduced diffusion evaluated by MR spectroscopy. J Neurol Sci. 2024;466:123228."},{"issue":"1","key":"b18","series-title":"Childs Nerv Syst","first-page":"285","article-title":"An infantile traumatic brain injury with a bright tree appearance detected before the late seizure","volume":"39","author":"Kaneko N","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kaneko N, Nishizawa H, Fujimoto J, Nanao T, Kimura Y, Owada G. An infantile traumatic brain injury with a bright tree appearance detected before the late seizure. Childs Nerv Syst. 2023;39(1):285\u2013288."},{"issue":"19","key":"b19","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"1625","article-title":"Factors associated with hemispheric hypodensity after subdural hematoma following abusive head trauma in children","volume":"31","author":"Foster KA","year":"2014","unstructured":"Foster KA, Recker MJ, Lee PS, Bell MJ, Tyler-Kabara EC. Factors associated with hemispheric hypodensity after subdural hematoma following abusive head trauma in children. J Neurotrauma. 2014;31(19):1625\u20131631."},{"issue":"2","key":"b20","series-title":"Pediatr Radiol","first-page":"164","article-title":"Unilateral hypoxic-ischemic injury in young children from abusive head trauma, lacking craniocervical vascular dissection or cord injury","volume":"38","author":"McKinney AM","year":"2008","unstructured":"McKinney AM, Thompson LR, Truwit CL, Velders S, Karagulle A, Kiragu A. Unilateral hypoxic-ischemic injury in young children from abusive head trauma, lacking craniocervical vascular dissection or cord injury. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38(2):164\u2013174."},{"issue":"10","key":"b21","series-title":"J Stat Softw","first-page":"1","article-title":"Polytomous variable latent class analysis","volume":"40","author":"Linzer DA","year":"2011","unstructured":"Linzer DA, poLCA LJ. Polytomous variable latent class analysis. J Stat Softw. 2011;40(10):1\u201329."},{"issue":"5","key":"b22","series-title":"J Trauma Acute Care Surg","first-page":"856","article-title":"Pediatric age-adjusted shock index as a tool for predicting outcomes in children with or without traumatic brain injury","volume":"91","author":"Reppucci ML","year":"2021","unstructured":"Reppucci ML, Phillips R, Meier M,  Pediatric age-adjusted shock index as a tool for predicting outcomes in children with or without traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2021;91(5):856\u2013860."},{"key":"b23","series-title":"BMC Bioinformatics","first-page":"77","article-title":"pROC: an open-source package for R and S+ to analyze and compare ROC curves","volume":"12","author":"Robin X","year":"2011","unstructured":"Robin X, Turck N, Hainard A,  pROC: an open-source package for R and S+ to analyze and compare ROC curves. BMC Bioinformatics. 2011;12:77."},{"key":"b24","series-title":"Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant","first-page":"151","article-title":"Medical management of head injuries in neonates and infants","author":"Walker ML","year":"1986","unstructured":"Walker ML, Storrs BB. Medical management of head injuries in neonates and infants. In: Raimondi AJ, Choux M, Di Rocco C, eds. Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant. Springer-Verlag; 1986:151-162."},{"issue":"6","key":"b25","series-title":"Pediatr Neurosurg","first-page":"379","article-title":"Impact of the timing of placement of an intracranial pressure monitor on outcomes in children with severe traumatic brain injury","volume":"53","author":"Balakrishnan B","year":"2018","unstructured":"Balakrishnan B, Zhang L, Simpson PM, Hanson SJ. Impact of the timing of placement of an intracranial pressure monitor on outcomes in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2018;53(6):379\u2013386."},{"issue":"10","key":"b26","series-title":"JAMA Pediatr","first-page":"965","article-title":"Functional outcome after intracranial pressure monitoring for children with severe traumatic brain injury","volume":"171","author":"Bennett TD","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bennett TD, DeWitt PE, Greene TH,  Functional outcome after intracranial pressure monitoring for children with severe traumatic brain injury. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(10):965\u2013971."},{"issue":"11","key":"b27","series-title":"Childs Nerv Syst","first-page":"2011","article-title":"ICP monitoring in children: why are we not adhering to guidelines?","volume":"31","author":"Roumeliotis N","year":"2015","unstructured":"Roumeliotis N, Pettersen G, Crevier L, Emeriaud G. ICP monitoring in children: why are we not adhering to guidelines? Childs Nerv Syst. 2015;31(11):2011\u20132014."},{"issue":"5","key":"b28","series-title":"Neurosurgery","first-page":"746","article-title":"National variability in intracranial pressure monitoring and craniotomy for children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury","volume":"73","author":"Van Cleve W","year":"2013","unstructured":"Van Cleve W, Kernic MA, Ellenbogen RG,  National variability in intracranial pressure monitoring and craniotomy for children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Neurosurgery. 2013;73(5):746\u2013752."},{"issue":"5","key":"b29","series-title":"Pediatr Crit Care Med","first-page":"537","article-title":"Frequency of intracranial pressure monitoring in infants and young toddlers with traumatic brain injury","volume":"6","author":"Keenan HT","year":"2005","unstructured":"Keenan HT, Nocera M, Bratton SL. Frequency of intracranial pressure monitoring in infants and young toddlers with traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2005;6(5):537\u2013541."},{"issue":"4","key":"b30","series-title":"J Neurosurg Pediatr","first-page":"257","article-title":"Hospital care of childhood traumatic brain injury in the United States, 1997-2009: a neurosurgical perspective","volume":"10","author":"Piatt JH Jr","year":"2012","unstructured":"Piatt JH Jr, Neff DA. Hospital care of childhood traumatic brain injury in the United States, 1997-2009: a neurosurgical perspective. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2012;10(4):257\u2013267."},{"issue":"6","key":"b31","series-title":"Pediatr Crit Care Med","first-page":"554","article-title":"Use of Rotterdam CT scores for mortality risk stratification in children with traumatic brain injury","volume":"15","author":"Liesemer K","year":"2014","unstructured":"Liesemer K, Riva-Cambrin J, Bennett KS,  Use of Rotterdam CT scores for mortality risk stratification in children with traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2014;15(6):554\u2013562."},{"issue":"4","key":"b32","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"629","article-title":"Common data elements for neuroimaging of traumatic brain injury: pediatric considerations","volume":"29","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"2012","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Holshouser B, Hunter JV, Tong K. Common data elements for neuroimaging of traumatic brain injury: pediatric considerations. J Neurotrauma. 2012;29(4):629\u2013633."},{"issue":"13-14","key":"b33","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"1021","article-title":"Marking a new age in characterization of acute traumatic brain injury: the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative","volume":"42","author":"Manley GT","year":"2025","unstructured":"Manley GT, Dams-O\u2019Connor K, Awwad HO,  Marking a new age in characterization of acute traumatic brain injury: the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative. J Neurotrauma. 2025;42(13-14):1021\u20131022."},{"issue":"13-14","key":"b34","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"1056","article-title":"Neuroimaging characterization of acute traumatic brain injury with focus on frontline clinicians: recommendations from the 2024 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative Imaging Working Group","volume":"42","author":"Mac Donald CL","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mac Donald CL, Yuh EL, Vande Vyvere T,  Neuroimaging characterization of acute traumatic brain injury with focus on frontline clinicians: recommendations from the 2024 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative Imaging Working Group. J Neurotrauma. 2025;42(13-14):1056\u20131064."},{"issue":"13-14","key":"b35","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"1065","article-title":"Blood-based biomarkers for improved characterization of traumatic brain injury: recommendations from the 2024 National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative Blood-Based Biomarkers Working Group","volume":"42","author":"Bazarian JJ","year":"2025","unstructured":"Bazarian JJ, Zetterberg H, Buki A,  Blood-based biomarkers for improved characterization of traumatic brain injury: recommendations from the 2024 National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative Blood-Based Biomarkers Working Group. J Neurotrauma. 2025;42(13-14):1065\u20131085."},{"key":"b1","article-title":"Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant","author":"Raimondi AJ","year":"1986","unstructured":"Raimondi AJ, Choux M, Di Rocco C. Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant. Springer-Verlag;1986."},{"key":"b2","series-title":"Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant","first-page":"141","article-title":"Clinical criteria - the Children\u2019s Coma Score and Outcome Scale - for decision making in managing head-injured infants and toddlers","author":"Raimondi AJ","year":"1986","unstructured":"Raimondi AJ, Hirschauer J. Clinical criteria - the Children\u2019s Coma Score and Outcome Scale - for decision making in managing head-injured infants and toddlers. In: Raimondi AJ, Choux M, Di Rocco C, eds. Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant. Springer-Verlag; 1986:141-150."},{"key":"b3","series-title":"Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant","first-page":"257","article-title":"Outcomes of craniocerebral trauma in infants","author":"Hoffman HJ","year":"1986","unstructured":"Hoffman HJ, Tacholarn C. Outcomes of craniocerebral trauma in infants. In: Raimondi AJ, Choux M, Di Rocco C, eds. Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant. Springer-Verlag;1986:257-262."},{"issue":"3","key":"b4","series-title":"J Neurosurg","first-page":"409","article-title":"The shaken baby syndrome. A clinical, pathological, and biomechanical study","volume":"66","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"1987","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Bruce DA, Margulies SS, Wiser R. The shaken baby syndrome. A clinical, pathological, and biomechanical study. J Neurosurg. 1987;66(3):409\u2013415."},{"issue":"2 Pt 1","key":"b5","series-title":"Pediatrics","first-page":"179","article-title":"Head injury in very young children: mechanisms, injury types, and ophthalmologic findings in 100 hospitalized patients younger than 2 years of age","volume":"90","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"1992","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Alario AJ, Lewander WJ,  Head injury in very young children: mechanisms, injury types, and ophthalmologic findings in 100 hospitalized patients younger than 2 years of age. Pediatrics. 1992;90(2 Pt 1):179\u2013185."},{"issue":"25","key":"b6","series-title":"N Engl J Med","first-page":"1822","article-title":"Nonaccidental head injury in infants\u2013the \"shaken-baby syndrome.\"","volume":"338","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"1998","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Christian CW, Rorke LB, Zimmerman RA. Nonaccidental head injury in infants\u2013the \"shaken-baby syndrome.\" N Engl J Med. 1998;338(25):1822\u20131829."},{"issue":"5","key":"b7","series-title":"J Neurosurg Pediatr","first-page":"481","article-title":"Abusive head trauma: evidence, obfuscation, and informed management","volume":"24","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"2019","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Christian CW. Abusive head trauma: evidence, obfuscation, and informed management. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2019;24(5):481\u2013488."},{"issue":"2","key":"b8","series-title":"J Clin Pathol","first-page":"185","article-title":"Diffuse axonal injury in early infancy","volume":"40","author":"Vowles GH","year":"1987","unstructured":"Vowles GH, Scholtz CL, Cameron JM. Diffuse axonal injury in early infancy. J Clin Pathol. 1987;40(2):185\u2013189."},{"issue":"5","key":"b9","series-title":"Br J Neurosurg","first-page":"533","article-title":"Extradural haematoma in infants","volume":"3","author":"Leggate JR","year":"1989","unstructured":"Leggate JR, Lopez-Ramos N, Genitori L, Lena G, Choux M. Extradural haematoma in infants. Br J Neurosurg. 1989;3(5):533\u2013539."},{"issue":"4","key":"b10","series-title":"Br J Neurosurg","first-page":"355","article-title":"The pathophysiology of infant subdural haematomas","volume":"7","author":"Howard MA","year":"1993","unstructured":"Howard MA, Bell BA, Uttley D. The pathophysiology of infant subdural haematomas. Br J Neurosurg. 1993;7(4):355\u2013365."},{"issue":"1","key":"b11","series-title":"Childs Nerv Syst","first-page":"34","article-title":"Head injuries in children under 36 months of age. Demography and outcome","volume":"4","author":"Hahn YS","year":"1988","unstructured":"Hahn YS, Chyung C, Barthel MJ, Bailes J, Flannery AM, McLone DG. Head injuries in children under 36 months of age. Demography and outcome. Childs Nerv Syst. 1988;4(1):34\u201340."},{"issue":"9","key":"b12","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"729","article-title":"CHOP Infant Coma Scale (\"Infant Face Scale\"): a novel coma scale for children less than two years of age","volume":"17","author":"Durham SR","year":"2000","unstructured":"Durham SR, Clancy RR, Leuthardt E,  CHOP Infant Coma Scale (\"Infant Face Scale\"): a novel coma scale for children less than two years of age. J Neurotrauma. 2000;17(9):729\u2013737."},{"issue":"4","key":"b13","series-title":"Pediatr Neurosurg","first-page":"206","article-title":"Acute subdural hematoma associated with cerebral infarction in the full-term neonate","volume":"23","author":"Steinbok P","year":"1995","unstructured":"Steinbok P, Haw CS, Cochrane DD, Kestle JR. Acute subdural hematoma associated with cerebral infarction in the full-term neonate. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1995;23(4):206\u2013215."},{"issue":"5","key":"b14","series-title":"Cureus","first-page":"e8011","article-title":"Big black brain phenomenon: understanding clinicoradiological dissociation in non-accidental traumatic brain injury in children","volume":"12","author":"Beriwal N","year":"2020","unstructured":"Beriwal N, Misko AL, Duhaime AC. Big black brain phenomenon: understanding clinicoradiological dissociation in non-accidental traumatic brain injury in children. Cureus. 2020;12(5):e8011."},{"key":"b15","series-title":"Prog Brain Res","first-page":"293","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury in infants: the phenomenon of subdural hemorrhage with hemispheric hypodensity (\"big black brain\")","volume":"161","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"2007","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Durham S. Traumatic brain injury in infants: the phenomenon of subdural hemorrhage with hemispheric hypodensity (\"big black brain\"). Prog Brain Res. 2007;161:293\u2013302."},{"key":"b16","series-title":"J Neurol Sci","first-page":"122904","article-title":"Factors influencing the development of infantile traumatic brain injury with a biphasic clinical course and late reduced diffusion","volume":"457","author":"Yasukohchi M","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yasukohchi M, Omata T, Ochiai K,  Factors influencing the development of infantile traumatic brain injury with a biphasic clinical course and late reduced diffusion. J Neurol Sci. 2024;457:122904."},{"key":"b17","series-title":"J Neurol Sci","first-page":"123228","article-title":"Pathomechanism of infantile traumatic brain injury with a biphasic clinical course and late reduced diffusion evaluated by MR spectroscopy","volume":"466","author":"Yasukohchi M","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yasukohchi M, Omata T, Ochiai K,  Pathomechanism of infantile traumatic brain injury with a biphasic clinical course and late reduced diffusion evaluated by MR spectroscopy. J Neurol Sci. 2024;466:123228."},{"issue":"1","key":"b18","series-title":"Childs Nerv Syst","first-page":"285","article-title":"An infantile traumatic brain injury with a bright tree appearance detected before the late seizure","volume":"39","author":"Kaneko N","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kaneko N, Nishizawa H, Fujimoto J, Nanao T, Kimura Y, Owada G. An infantile traumatic brain injury with a bright tree appearance detected before the late seizure. Childs Nerv Syst. 2023;39(1):285\u2013288."},{"issue":"19","key":"b19","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"1625","article-title":"Factors associated with hemispheric hypodensity after subdural hematoma following abusive head trauma in children","volume":"31","author":"Foster KA","year":"2014","unstructured":"Foster KA, Recker MJ, Lee PS, Bell MJ, Tyler-Kabara EC. Factors associated with hemispheric hypodensity after subdural hematoma following abusive head trauma in children. J Neurotrauma. 2014;31(19):1625\u20131631."},{"issue":"2","key":"b20","series-title":"Pediatr Radiol","first-page":"164","article-title":"Unilateral hypoxic-ischemic injury in young children from abusive head trauma, lacking craniocervical vascular dissection or cord injury","volume":"38","author":"McKinney AM","year":"2008","unstructured":"McKinney AM, Thompson LR, Truwit CL, Velders S, Karagulle A, Kiragu A. Unilateral hypoxic-ischemic injury in young children from abusive head trauma, lacking craniocervical vascular dissection or cord injury. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38(2):164\u2013174."},{"issue":"10","key":"b21","series-title":"J Stat Softw","first-page":"1","article-title":"Polytomous variable latent class analysis","volume":"40","author":"Linzer DA","year":"2011","unstructured":"Linzer DA, poLCA LJ. Polytomous variable latent class analysis. J Stat Softw. 2011;40(10):1\u201329."},{"issue":"5","key":"b22","series-title":"J Trauma Acute Care Surg","first-page":"856","article-title":"Pediatric age-adjusted shock index as a tool for predicting outcomes in children with or without traumatic brain injury","volume":"91","author":"Reppucci ML","year":"2021","unstructured":"Reppucci ML, Phillips R, Meier M,  Pediatric age-adjusted shock index as a tool for predicting outcomes in children with or without traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2021;91(5):856\u2013860."},{"key":"b23","series-title":"BMC Bioinformatics","first-page":"77","article-title":"pROC: an open-source package for R and S+ to analyze and compare ROC curves","volume":"12","author":"Robin X","year":"2011","unstructured":"Robin X, Turck N, Hainard A,  pROC: an open-source package for R and S+ to analyze and compare ROC curves. BMC Bioinformatics. 2011;12:77."},{"key":"b24","series-title":"Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant","first-page":"151","article-title":"Medical management of head injuries in neonates and infants","author":"Walker ML","year":"1986","unstructured":"Walker ML, Storrs BB. Medical management of head injuries in neonates and infants. In: Raimondi AJ, Choux M, Di Rocco C, eds. Head Injuries in the Newborn and Infant. Springer-Verlag; 1986:151-162."},{"issue":"6","key":"b25","series-title":"Pediatr Neurosurg","first-page":"379","article-title":"Impact of the timing of placement of an intracranial pressure monitor on outcomes in children with severe traumatic brain injury","volume":"53","author":"Balakrishnan B","year":"2018","unstructured":"Balakrishnan B, Zhang L, Simpson PM, Hanson SJ. Impact of the timing of placement of an intracranial pressure monitor on outcomes in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Neurosurg. 2018;53(6):379\u2013386."},{"issue":"10","key":"b26","series-title":"JAMA Pediatr","first-page":"965","article-title":"Functional outcome after intracranial pressure monitoring for children with severe traumatic brain injury","volume":"171","author":"Bennett TD","year":"2017","unstructured":"Bennett TD, DeWitt PE, Greene TH,  Functional outcome after intracranial pressure monitoring for children with severe traumatic brain injury. JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(10):965\u2013971."},{"issue":"11","key":"b27","series-title":"Childs Nerv Syst","first-page":"2011","article-title":"ICP monitoring in children: why are we not adhering to guidelines?","volume":"31","author":"Roumeliotis N","year":"2015","unstructured":"Roumeliotis N, Pettersen G, Crevier L, Emeriaud G. ICP monitoring in children: why are we not adhering to guidelines? Childs Nerv Syst. 2015;31(11):2011\u20132014."},{"issue":"5","key":"b28","series-title":"Neurosurgery","first-page":"746","article-title":"National variability in intracranial pressure monitoring and craniotomy for children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury","volume":"73","author":"Van Cleve W","year":"2013","unstructured":"Van Cleve W, Kernic MA, Ellenbogen RG,  National variability in intracranial pressure monitoring and craniotomy for children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Neurosurgery. 2013;73(5):746\u2013752."},{"issue":"5","key":"b29","series-title":"Pediatr Crit Care Med","first-page":"537","article-title":"Frequency of intracranial pressure monitoring in infants and young toddlers with traumatic brain injury","volume":"6","author":"Keenan HT","year":"2005","unstructured":"Keenan HT, Nocera M, Bratton SL. Frequency of intracranial pressure monitoring in infants and young toddlers with traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2005;6(5):537\u2013541."},{"issue":"4","key":"b30","series-title":"J Neurosurg Pediatr","first-page":"257","article-title":"Hospital care of childhood traumatic brain injury in the United States, 1997-2009: a neurosurgical perspective","volume":"10","author":"Piatt JH Jr","year":"2012","unstructured":"Piatt JH Jr, Neff DA. Hospital care of childhood traumatic brain injury in the United States, 1997-2009: a neurosurgical perspective. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2012;10(4):257\u2013267."},{"issue":"6","key":"b31","series-title":"Pediatr Crit Care Med","first-page":"554","article-title":"Use of Rotterdam CT scores for mortality risk stratification in children with traumatic brain injury","volume":"15","author":"Liesemer K","year":"2014","unstructured":"Liesemer K, Riva-Cambrin J, Bennett KS,  Use of Rotterdam CT scores for mortality risk stratification in children with traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2014;15(6):554\u2013562."},{"issue":"4","key":"b32","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"629","article-title":"Common data elements for neuroimaging of traumatic brain injury: pediatric considerations","volume":"29","author":"Duhaime AC","year":"2012","unstructured":"Duhaime AC, Holshouser B, Hunter JV, Tong K. Common data elements for neuroimaging of traumatic brain injury: pediatric considerations. J Neurotrauma. 2012;29(4):629\u2013633."},{"issue":"13-14","key":"b33","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"1021","article-title":"Marking a new age in characterization of acute traumatic brain injury: the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative","volume":"42","author":"Manley GT","year":"2025","unstructured":"Manley GT, Dams-O\u2019Connor K, Awwad HO,  Marking a new age in characterization of acute traumatic brain injury: the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative. J Neurotrauma. 2025;42(13-14):1021\u20131022."},{"issue":"13-14","key":"b34","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"1056","article-title":"Neuroimaging characterization of acute traumatic brain injury with focus on frontline clinicians: recommendations from the 2024 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative Imaging Working Group","volume":"42","author":"Mac Donald CL","year":"2025","unstructured":"Mac Donald CL, Yuh EL, Vande Vyvere T,  Neuroimaging characterization of acute traumatic brain injury with focus on frontline clinicians: recommendations from the 2024 National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative Imaging Working Group. J Neurotrauma. 2025;42(13-14):1056\u20131064."},{"issue":"13-14","key":"b35","series-title":"J Neurotrauma","first-page":"1065","article-title":"Blood-based biomarkers for improved characterization of traumatic brain injury: recommendations from the 2024 National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative Blood-Based Biomarkers Working Group","volume":"42","author":"Bazarian JJ","year":"2025","unstructured":"Bazarian JJ, Zetterberg H, Buki A,  Blood-based biomarkers for improved characterization of traumatic brain injury: recommendations from the 2024 National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke Traumatic Brain Injury Classification and Nomenclature Initiative Blood-Based Biomarkers Working Group. J Neurotrauma. 2025;42(13-14):1065\u20131085."}],"container-title":["Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/thejns.org\/view\/journals\/j-neurosurg-pediatr\/37\/4\/article-p328.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/thejns.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/j-neurosurg-pediatr\/37\/4\/article-p328.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/thejns.org\/downloadpdf\/journals\/j-neurosurg-pediatr\/37\/4\/article-p328.xml","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T15:26:33Z","timestamp":1776093993000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/thejns.org\/view\/journals\/j-neurosurg-pediatr\/37\/4\/article-p328.xml"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3171\/2025.9.peds25308","relation":{},"ISSN":["1933-0707","1933-0715"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1933-0707","type":"print"},{"value":"1933-0715","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]]}}}