{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T19:04:18Z","timestamp":1776279858572,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":116,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]],"date-time":"2021-03-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1616544000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Argument &amp; Computation"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> In this paper we describe the impact that Walton\u2019s conception of argumentation schemes had on AI and Law research. We will discuss developments in argumentation in AI and Law before Walton\u2019s schemes became known in that community, and the issues that were current in that work. We will then show how Walton\u2019s schemes provided a means of addressing all of those issues, and so supplied a unifying perspective from which to view argumentation in AI and Law. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3233\/aac-200543","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,26]],"date-time":"2021-03-26T17:26:46Z","timestamp":1616779606000},"page":"417-434","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Argumentation schemes in AI and Law"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Katie","family":"Atkinson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Liverpool,UK. E-mails:\u00a0,\u00a0"}]},{"given":"Trevor","family":"Bench-Capon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Liverpool,UK. E-mails:\u00a0,\u00a0"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L.\u00a0Al-Abdulkarim, K.\u00a0Atkinson and T.\u00a0Bench-Capon, From oral hearing to opinion in the US Supreme Court, in: Proceedings of JURIX 2013, 2013, pp.\u00a01\u201310.","DOI":"10.3233\/978-1-61499-359-9-1"},{"key":"ref002","unstructured":"V.\u00a0Aleven, Teaching case-based argumentation through a model and examples, PhD thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1997."},{"key":"ref003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V.\u00a0Aleven and K.D.\u00a0Ashley, Doing things with factors, in: Proceedings of the 5th InternationalConference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1995, pp.\u00a031\u201341.","DOI":"10.1145\/222092.222106"},{"key":"ref004","unstructured":"R.\u00a0Alexy, A Theory of Legal Argumentation: The Theory of Rational Discourse as Theory of Legal Justification, Clarendon Press, 1989."},{"key":"ref005","unstructured":"R.\u00a0Alexy and R.\u00a0Dreier, Statutory interpretation in the federal republic of Germany, in: Interpreting Statutes. A Comparative Study, N.\u00a0MacCormick and R.S.\u00a0Summers, eds, Dartmouth, 1991."},{"issue":"1","key":"ref006","first-page":"291","volume":"8","author":"Araszkiewicz M.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Logics"},{"key":"ref007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A.\u00a0Aristotle, Topics I, VIII, and Selections, Smith, Robin (trans.). Clarendon Press, 1997.","DOI":"10.1093\/oseo\/instance.00258598"},{"key":"ref008","unstructured":"K.D.\u00a0Ashley, Modeling Legal Arguments: Reasoning with Cases and Hypotheticals, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1990."},{"key":"ref009","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-012-9122-y"},{"key":"ref010","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artint.2007.04.009"},{"key":"ref011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K.\u00a0Atkinson and T.\u00a0Bench-Capon, Taking the long view: Looking ahead in practical reasoning, in: Proceedings of COMMA 2014, 2014, pp.\u00a0109\u2013120.","DOI":"10.3233\/978-1-61499-436-7-109"},{"key":"ref012","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artint.2017.09.002"},{"key":"ref013","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-020-09272-2"},{"key":"ref014","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2018358.2018369"},{"key":"ref015","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10458-005-1166-x"},{"key":"ref016","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11229-005-3488-2"},{"key":"ref017","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-006-9001-5"},{"key":"ref018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K.\u00a0Atkinson, T.\u00a0Bench-Capon, H.\u00a0Prakken and A.\u00a0Wyner, Argumentation schemes for reasoning about factors with dimensions, in: Proceedings of JURIX 2013, 2013, pp.\u00a039\u201348.","DOI":"10.3233\/978-1-61499-359-9-39"},{"key":"ref019","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19462166.2012.708670"},{"key":"ref020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T.\u00a0Bench-Capon, Support for policy makers: Formulating legislation with the aid of logical models, in: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1987, pp.\u00a0181\u2013189.","DOI":"10.1145\/41735.41756"},{"key":"ref021","unstructured":"T.\u00a0Bench-Capon, Arguing with cases, in: Proceedings of JURIX 1997, 1997, pp.\u00a085\u2013100."},{"key":"ref022","unstructured":"T.\u00a0Bench-Capon, Specification and implementation of Toulmin dialogue game, in: Proceedings of JURIX 1998, 1998, pp.\u00a05\u201320."},{"key":"ref023","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-012-9118-7"},{"key":"ref024","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-017-9201-1"},{"key":"ref025","unstructured":"T.\u00a0Bench-Capon and K.\u00a0Atkinson, Dimensions and values for legal CBR, in: Proceedings of JURIX 2017, 2017, pp.\u00a027\u201332."},{"key":"ref026","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-46485-4_1"},{"key":"ref027","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13600834.1993.9965668"},{"key":"ref028","unstructured":"T.\u00a0Bench-Capon and P.\u00a0Leng, Developing heuristics for the argument based explanation of negation in logic programs, in: Proceedings of the AAAI-Workshop on Computational Dialectics, 1994, pp.\u00a01\u20138."},{"key":"ref029","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0950-7051(91)90007-O"},{"key":"ref030","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1568234.1568248"},{"key":"ref031","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-010-9094-8"},{"key":"ref032","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2018358.2018361"},{"key":"ref033","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2514601.2514604"},{"key":"ref034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T.\u00a0Bench-Capon, G.\u00a0Robinson, T.\u00a0Routen and M.J.\u00a0Sergot, Logic programming for large scale applications in law: A formalisation of supplementary benefit legislation, in: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1987, pp.\u00a0190\u2013198.","DOI":"10.1145\/41735.41757"},{"key":"ref035","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0004-3702(03)00108-5"},{"key":"ref036","unstructured":"T.\u00a0Bench-Capon and M.\u00a0Sergot, Towards a rule-based representation of open texture in law, in: Computer Power and Legal Language, C.\u00a0Walter, ed. Quorum Books, New York, 1988, pp.\u00a039\u201361."},{"key":"ref037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T.\u00a0Bench-Capon and G.\u00a0Staniford, PLAID: Proactive legal assistance, in: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1995, pp.\u00a081\u201388.","DOI":"10.1145\/222092.222142"},{"key":"ref038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D.H.\u00a0Berman and C.D.\u00a0Hafner, Representing teleological structure in case-based legal reasoning: The missing link, in: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1993, pp.\u00a050\u201359.","DOI":"10.1145\/158976.158982"},{"key":"ref039","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12426"},{"key":"ref040","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:ARTI.0000046007.11806.9a"},{"key":"ref041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C.\u00a0Biagioli, P.\u00a0Mariani and D.T.\u00a0Esplex, A rule and conceptual model for representing statutes, in: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, ACM, 1987, pp.\u00a0240\u2013251.","DOI":"10.1145\/41735.41762"},{"key":"ref042","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0004-3702(84)90036-5"},{"key":"ref043","unstructured":"G.\u00a0Brewka and T.F.\u00a0Gordon, Carneades and abstract dialectical frameworks: A reconstruction, in: Proceedings of COMMA 2010, 2010, pp.\u00a03\u201312."},{"key":"ref044","unstructured":"B.\u00a0Buchanan and E.\u00a0Shortliffe, The MYCIN Experiments of the Stanford Heuristic Programming Project, Addison-Wasley, Reading, MA, 1984."},{"key":"ref045","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/112646.112676"},{"key":"ref046","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H.\u00a0Donald and Berman, Developer\u2019s choice in the legal domain: The Sisyphean journey with cbr or down hill with rules, in: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1991, pp.\u00a0307\u2013309.","DOI":"10.1145\/112646.112685"},{"key":"ref047","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00871972"},{"key":"ref048","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2514601.2514637"},{"key":"ref049","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/AAC-180039"},{"key":"ref050","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artint.2007.04.010"},{"key":"ref051","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1568234.1568250"},{"key":"ref052","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-98197-0_12"},{"key":"ref053","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-012-9120-0"},{"key":"ref054","unstructured":"T.F.\u00a0Gordon and D.\u00a0Walton, Formalizing balancing arguments, in: Proceedings of COMMA 2016, 2016, pp.\u00a0327\u2013338."},{"key":"ref055","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/10929179_9"},{"key":"ref056","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1047788.1047792"},{"key":"ref057","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00118493"},{"key":"ref058","unstructured":"C.L.\u00a0Hamblin, Fallacies, Methuen, London, 1970."},{"key":"ref059","unstructured":"H.\u00a0Hansen, Fallacies, in: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, E.N.\u00a0Zalta, ed. summer 2020 edn, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2020."},{"issue":"2","key":"ref060","first-page":"113","volume":"2","author":"Jaap C.","year":"1993","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence and Law"},{"key":"ref061","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R.\u00a0Kowalski, The treatment of negation in logic programs for representing legislation, in: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1989, pp.\u00a011\u201315.","DOI":"10.1145\/74014.74016"},{"key":"ref062","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-015-9163-0"},{"key":"ref063","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00872529"},{"key":"ref064","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L.S.\u00a0Lutomski, The design of an attorney\u2019s statistical consultant, in: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, ACM, 1989, pp.\u00a0224\u2013233.","DOI":"10.1145\/74014.74043"},{"key":"ref065","unstructured":"D.N.\u00a0MacCormick and R.S.\u00a0Summers, Interpreting Statutes: A Comparative Study, Dartmouth, 1991."},{"key":"ref066","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00258422"},{"key":"ref067","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C.C.\u00a0Marshall, Representing the structure of a legal argument, in: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, ACM, 1989, pp.\u00a0121\u2013127.","DOI":"10.1145\/74014.74031"},{"key":"ref068","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19462166.2013.869766"},{"key":"ref069","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0004-3702(94)00041-X"},{"key":"ref070","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.L.\u00a0Pollock, Cognitive Carpentry: A Blueprint for How to Build a Person, MIT Press, 1995.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/1887.001.0001"},{"key":"ref071","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/112646.112666"},{"key":"ref072","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H.\u00a0Prakken, From logic to dialectics in legal argument, in: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1995, pp.\u00a0165\u2013174.","DOI":"10.1145\/222092.222230"},{"key":"ref073","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0269888906000865"},{"key":"ref074","unstructured":"H.\u00a0Prakken, On the nature of argument schemes, in: Dialectics, Dialogue and Argumentation. an Examination of Douglas Walton\u2019s Theories of Reasoning and Argument, 2010, pp.\u00a0167\u2013185."},{"key":"ref075","unstructured":"H.\u00a0Prakken, Argument schemes for discussing Bayesian modellings of complex criminal cases, in: Proceedings of JURIX 2017, 2017, pp.\u00a069\u201378."},{"key":"ref076","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12418"},{"key":"ref077","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00118496"},{"key":"ref078","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008278309945"},{"key":"ref079","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/logcom\/ext010"},{"key":"ref080","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/S0218213004001922"},{"key":"ref081","unstructured":"E.L.\u00a0Rissland, Examples in legal reasoning: Legal hypotheticals, in: Proceedings of the 8th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1983, pp.\u00a090\u201393."},{"key":"ref082","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E.L.\u00a0Rissland and K.D.\u00a0Ashley, A case-based system for trade secrets law, in: Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1987, pp.\u00a060\u201366.","DOI":"10.1145\/41735.41743"},{"key":"ref083","unstructured":"G.\u00a0Sartor, D.\u00a0Walton, F.\u00a0Macagno and A.\u00a0Rotolo, Argumentation schemes for statutory interpretation: A logical analysis, in: Proceedings of JURIX 2014, 2014, pp.\u00a011\u201320."},{"key":"ref084","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"U.J.\u00a0Schild and S.\u00a0Herzog, The use of meta-rules in rule based legal computer systems, in: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 1993, pp.\u00a0100\u2013109.","DOI":"10.1145\/158976.158989"},{"key":"ref085","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/5689.5920"},{"key":"ref086","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D.M.\u00a0Sherman, Expert systems and ICAI in tax law: Killing two birds with one ai stone, in: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, ACM, 1989, pp.\u00a074\u201380.","DOI":"10.1145\/74014.74025"},{"key":"ref087","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00118477"},{"key":"ref088","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-086441-6.50022-2"},{"key":"ref089","unstructured":"G.\u00a0Tarello, in: L\u2019interpretazione della Legge, Giuffr\u00e8: Milan, 1980."},{"key":"ref090","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L.\u00a0Thorne McCarty, Reflections on TAXMAN: An experiment in Artificial Intelligence and legal reasoning, Harvard Law Review90 (1976), 837.","DOI":"10.2307\/1340132"},{"key":"ref091","unstructured":"S.E.\u00a0Toulmin, The Uses of Argument, Cambridge University Press, 1958."},{"key":"ref092","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19462166.2012.661766"},{"key":"ref093","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/383535.383565"},{"key":"ref094","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/logcom\/13.3.319"},{"key":"ref095","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:ARTI.0000046008.49443.36"},{"key":"ref096","unstructured":"A.\u00a0von der\u00a0Lieth Gardner, An Artificial Intelligence Approach to Legal Reasoning, Bradford Books, MIT Press, 1984."},{"key":"ref097","unstructured":"D.\u00a0Walton, Argumentation Schemes for Presumptive Reasoning, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996."},{"key":"ref098","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-013-9139-x"},{"key":"ref099","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-013-9151-1"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19462166.2013.858183"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3233\/AAC-190480"},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00146-016-0666-3"},{"key":"ref103","unstructured":"D.\u00a0Walton and E.C.\u00a0Krabbe, Commitment in Dialogue: Basic Concepts of Interpersonal Reasoning, SUNY Press, 1995."},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511802034"},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10503-012-9262-y"},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10506-016-9179-0"},{"key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00136781"},{"key":"ref108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M.\u00a0Wardeh, T.\u00a0Bench-Capon and F.\u00a0Coenen, Padua protocol: Strategies and tactics, in: European Conference on Symbolic and Quantitative Approaches to Reasoning and Uncertainty, Springer, 2007, pp.\u00a0465\u2013476.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-75256-1_42"},{"key":"ref109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M.\u00a0Wardeh, A.\u00a0Wyner, K.\u00a0Atkinson and T.\u00a0Bench-Capon, Argumentation based tools for policy-making, in: Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, 2013, pp.\u00a0249\u2013250.","DOI":"10.1145\/2514601.2514640"},{"key":"ref110","first-page":"272","volume":"1","author":"Waterman D.A.","year":"1980","journal-title":"AAAI"},{"key":"ref111","first-page":"135","author":"Woods J.","year":"1974","journal-title":"Philosophy & Rhetoric"},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1746-8361.1978.tb01304.x"},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jal.2005.04.006"},{"key":"ref114","unstructured":"A.\u00a0Wyner and T.\u00a0Bench-Capon, Argument schemes for legal case-based reasoning, in: Proceedings of JURIX 2007, 2007, pp.\u00a0139\u2013149."},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J.\u00a0Zeleznikow and A.\u00a0Stranieri, The SPLIT-UP system: Integrating neural networks and rule-based reasoning in the legal domain, in: Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Law, ACM, 1995, pp.\u00a0185\u2013194.","DOI":"10.1145\/222092.222235"},{"key":"ref116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15439\/2018F79"}],"container-title":["Argument &amp; Computation"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.3233\/AAC-200543","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.3233\/AAC-200543","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.3233\/AAC-200543","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]],"date-time":"2025-03-11T08:01:59Z","timestamp":1741680119000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.3233\/AAC-200543"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]},"references-count":116,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,10]]}},"alternative-id":["10.3233\/AAC-200543"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/aac-200543","relation":{},"ISSN":["1946-2166","1946-2174"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1946-2166","type":"print"},{"value":"1946-2174","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]}}}