{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T08:24:15Z","timestamp":1792743855529,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,7]],"date-time":"2023-11-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1699315200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AO"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: SNOMED CT is a large terminology system designed to represent all aspects of healthcare. Its current form and content result from decades of bottom-up evolution. Due to SNOMED CT\u2019s formal descriptions, it can be considered an ontology. The Basic Formal Ontology (BFO) is a foundational ontology that proposes a small set of disjoint, hierarchically ordered classes, supported by relations and axioms. In contrast, as a typical top-down endeavor, BFO was designed as a foundational framework for domain ontologies in the natural sciences and related disciplines. Whereas it is mostly assumed that domain ontologies should be created as extensions of foundational ontologies, a post-hoc harmonization of consolidated domain ontologies in use, such as SNOMED CT, is known to be challenging. Methods: We explored the feasibility of harmonizing SNOMED CT with BFO, with a focus on the SNOMED CT Clinical Finding hierarchy. With more than 100,000 classes, it accounts for about one third of SNOMED CT\u2019s content. In particular, we represented typical SNOMED CT finding\/disorder concepts using description logics under BFO. Three representational patterns were created and the logical entailments analyzed. Results: Under a first scrutiny, the clinical intuition that diseases, disorders, signs and symptoms form a homogeneous ontological upper-level class appeared incompatible with BFO\u2019s upper-level distinction into continuants and occurrents. The Clinical finding class seemed to be an umbrella for all kinds of entities of clinical interest, such as material entities, processes, states, dispositions, and qualities. This suggests the conclusion that Clinical finding would not be a suitable upper-level class from an BFO perspective. On closer inspection of the taxonomic links within this hierarchy and the implicit meaning derived thereof, it became clear that Clinical finding classes do not characterize the entity (e.g. a fracture, allergy, tumor, pain, hemorrhage, seizure, fever) in a literal sense but rather the condition of a patient having that fracture, allergy, pain etc. This gives sense to the current characteristic of the Clinical Finding hierarchy, in which complex classes are modeled as subclasses of their constituents. Most of these taxonomic links are inferred, as the consequence of the \u2018role group\u2019 design pattern, which is ubiquitous in SNOMED CT and has often been subject of controversy regarding its semantics. Conclusion: Our analyses resulted in the proposal of (i) equating SNOMED CT\u2019s \u2018role group\u2019 property with the reflexive and transitive BFO relation \u2018has occurrent part\u2019; and (ii) reinterpreting Clinical Findings as Clinical Occurrents, i.e. temporally extended entities in an organism, having one or more occurrents as temporal parts that occur in continuants. This re-interpretation was corroborated by a manual analysis of classes under Clinical Finding, as well as the identification of similar modeling patterns in other ontologies. As a result, SNOMED CT does not require any content redesign to establish compatibility with BFO, apart from this re-interpretation, and a suggested re-labeling. Regarding the feasibility of harmonizing terminologies with principled foundational ontologies post-hoc, our results provide support to the assumption that this does not necessarily require major redesign efforts, but rather a careful analysis of the implicit assumptions of terminology curators and users.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3233\/ao-230018","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,1]],"date-time":"2023-09-01T11:17:55Z","timestamp":1693567075000},"page":"207-237","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["SNOMED CT and Basic Formal Ontology \u2013 convergence or contradiction between standards? The case of \u201cclinical finding\u201d"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Stefan","family":"Schulz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Medical University of Graz, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James T.","family":"Case","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SNOMED International, London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Hendler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SNOMED International, London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Karlsson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Socialstyrelsen, Stockholm, Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Lawley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian e-Health Research Centre, Brisbane, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ronald","family":"Cornet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amsterdam UMC \u2013 University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Amsterdam Public Health, Methodology & Digital Health, Amsterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Hausam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hausam Consulting, Columbia, Missouri, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harold","family":"Solbrig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Johns Hopkins University, Rochester, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karim","family":"Nashar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Health Service, Stockport, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catalina","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Costa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yongsheng","family":"Gao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SNOMED International, London, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","reference":[{"key":"10.3233\/AO-230018_ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arp, R., Smith, B. & Spear, A.D. 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