{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T12:10:22Z","timestamp":1764850222779,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"IOS Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9781643686387","type":"electronic"}],"license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]],"date-time":"2025-12-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764633600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Machine learning is increasingly used in the legal domain, typically operating retrospectively by treating past case outcomes as ground truth. However, legal outcomes are often shaped by human interventions that are not captured in most machine learning approaches. A final decision may result from a settlement, an appeal, or other procedural actions. This creates label indeterminacy: the outcome could have been different if the intervention had or had not taken place. We argue that legal machine learning applications need to account for label indeterminacy. Methods to impute indeterminate labels exist, but are all grounded in unverifiable assumptions. In the context of classifying cases from the European Court of Human Rights, we show that the way that labels are constructed during training can significantly affect model behaviour. We therefore position label indeterminacy as a relevant concern in AI &amp; Law and demonstrate how it can shape model behaviour.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3233\/faia251611","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T12:05:29Z","timestamp":1764849929000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Label Indeterminacy in AI &amp; Law"],"prefix":"10.3233","author":[{"given":"Cor","family":"Steging","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernoulli Institute of Mathematics, Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence, University of Groningen"}]},{"given":"Tadeusz","family":"Zbiegie\u0144","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Legal Theory, Jagiellonian University"}]}],"member":"7437","container-title":["Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications","Legal Knowledge and Information Systems"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/ebooks.iospress.nl\/pdf\/doi\/10.3233\/FAIA251611","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,4]],"date-time":"2025-12-04T12:05:30Z","timestamp":1764849930000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ebooks.iospress.nl\/doi\/10.3233\/FAIA251611"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]]},"ISBN":["9781643686387"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/faia251611","relation":{},"ISSN":["0922-6389","1879-8314"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0922-6389","type":"print"},{"value":"1879-8314","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]]}}}