{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,2]],"date-time":"2026-05-02T20:22:34Z","timestamp":1777753354052,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,1]],"date-time":"2018-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1533081600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Information Services and Use"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The notion of thoughts, ideas and other information fixed in a tangible medium of expression for purposes of reproducing, displaying or communicating the information to others has its origins in antiquity. Both the information itself and its symbolic expression are purely conceptual entities until fixed in a material object. When an intangible means of expression, in which symbolic logic is represented as or converted to machine-independent data structures in digital form, and structured as digital objects (i.e., digital entities), this implementation may be viewed as the logical equivalent of fixation in a material object; and, in this context, we are viewing a block as a particular way of structuring a digital object, and a blockchain in itself as a digital object that incorporates one or more objects.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>In considering the development of commerce based on the Digital Object (DO) Architecture, an interesting area for exploration and development has been introduced around the concept of mobile computer programs configured as digital objects. This technology may play an important role in the management of software embedded in new Internet of Things (IoT) devices such as microcontrollers, where issues have arisen with respect to the interoperability of such software with other resources in the developing IoT. There have been many efforts over the years to evolve the Internet to embrace new technology, such as the DO Architecture, and we hope this trend continues unabated.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3233\/isu-180021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,9]],"date-time":"2018-10-09T15:16:20Z","timestamp":1539098180000},"page":"173-185","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Blocks as digital entities: A standards perspective"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"38","author":[{"given":"Patrice A.","family":"Lyons","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI),  1895 Preston White Drive,  Suite 100 Reston,  VA 20191, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert E.","family":"Kahn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI),  1895 Preston White Drive,  Suite 100 Reston,  VA 20191, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-ISU-180021","unstructured":"CerfV.G. and KahnR.E., A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication, available at https:\/\/www.cs.princeton.edu\/courses\/archive\/fall06\/cos561\/papers\/cerf74.pdf; for a brief history of the Internet, see \u201cA Brief History of the Internet\u201d, available at https:\/\/www.internetsociety.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2017\/09\/ISOC-History-of-the-Internet_1997.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr2-ISU-180021","unstructured":"KahnR.E., The organization of computer resources into a packet radio network,\n                      Managing Requirements Knowledge, International Workshop\n                      (1975), available at https:\/\/www.computer.org\/csdl\/proceedings\/afips\/1975\/5083\/00\/50830177.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr3-ISU-180021","unstructured":"\"The Digital Library Project Volumne 1 \u2013 The World of Knowbots (DRAFT)\", (1988), available at: http:\/\/www.cnri.reston.va.us\/kahn-cerf-88.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr4-ISU-180021","unstructured":"For a group photo of participants at the meeting on \u201cCollaboratories\u201d, see http:\/\/ai.eecs.umich.edu\/people\/conway\/CSE\/CollabTech\/CollabTechWorkshop.html, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr5-ISU-180021","unstructured":"The Workshop Report, \u201cKnowbots in the Real World\u201d, is available at http:\/\/www.cnri.reston.va.us\/wkshp_intel_prop_knowbots_may1989.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr6-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Knowbot is a registered trademark of CNRI and has been used in commerce by CNRI for software information services since September 26, 1989."},{"key":"bibr7-ISU-180021","unstructured":"For additional information and reference software, written in Python, see https:\/\/www.cnri.reston.va.us\/home\/koe\/index.html, accessed 2 September 2018; see also U.S. Patent No. US 6,574,628, now expired, covering the mobile program technology, entitled \u201cSystem for Distributed Task Execution\u201d, granted to CNRI by the USPTO on June 3, 2003."},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr8-ISU-180021.1","unstructured":"For reference to ABIDE Gateway System, see Long, K., Fowler, J., and Barber, S. \"VNS Retriever: Querying MEDLINE over the Internet\", Baylor College of Medicine (1992)"},{"key":"#cr-split#-bibr8-ISU-180021.2","unstructured":"see also Application Gateway System, Annual Reports (1995-1997), available at https:\/\/www.usenix.org\/legacy\/publications\/library\/proceedings\/sa92\/long.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr9-ISU-180021","unstructured":"The DO patent, now expired, titled \u201cSystem for uniquely and persistently identifying, managing and tracking digital objects\u201d, U.S. Patent No. 6,135,646, was granted to CNRI by the USPTO in 2000."},{"key":"bibr10-ISU-180021","unstructured":"CSTR Project, information available at http:\/\/www.cnri.reston.va.us\/tmp_hp\/cstr\/cnri-cstr.html, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr11-ISU-180021","unstructured":"KahnR.E. and WilenskyR., A Framework for Distributed Digital Object Services,\n                      International Journal on Digital Libraries\n                      (2006), available at https:\/\/www.doi.org\/topics\/2006_05_02_Kahn_Framework.pdf (First published by the authors May 1995, \u201cA Framework for Distributed Digital Object Services\u201d), http:\/\/hdl.handle.net\/4263537\/5001."},{"key":"bibr12-ISU-180021","unstructured":"See R.E. Kahn, CNRI Response to draft NIST Blockchain Technology Overview (2018) available at https:\/\/csrc.nist.gov\/publications\/detail\/nistir\/8202\/draft, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr13-ISU-180021","unstructured":"The notion of a \u201ccontainer\u201d is still quite popular today, see, e.g., Marvin, R. \u201cContainers, Explained (2018), available at https:\/\/www.pcmag.com\/article\/349238\/containers-explained."},{"key":"bibr14-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Managing Access to Digital Information, Cross-Industry Working Team, p. 23 (May 1997), available at http:\/\/www.xiwt.org\/documents\/ManagAccess-1.pdf; see also Lyons, P. A. \u201cManaging Access to Digital Information: Some Basic Terminology Issues\u201d, Bulletin of the American Society of Information Science, p. 12 (Dec.Jan. Issue 1998), available at https:\/\/www.cnri.reston.va.us\/papers\/Managing-Access-to-Digital-Information-Monaco.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr15-ISU-180021","unstructured":"As defined in the U.S. Copyright Law, a \u201ccomputer program\u201d is a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or indirectly in a computer in order to bring about a certain result, 17 U.S.C. sec. 101, available at https:\/\/www.copyright.gov\/title17\/92chap1.html#102, accessed September 2, 2018; see also Copyright Office Compendium of Office Practices. Ch. 700, available at https:\/\/www.copyright.gov\/comp3\/chap700\/ch700-literary-works.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr16-ISU-180021","unstructured":"See, e.g., M. Dworkin, \u201cRecommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation\u201d, NIST Special Publication 800-38A (2001 ed.), available at https:\/\/nvlpubs.nist.gov\/nistpubs\/Legacy\/SP\/nistspecialpublication800-38a.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr17-ISU-180021","unstructured":"NakamotoS., Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System, (October 2008) available at https:\/\/bitcoin.org\/bitcoin.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr18-ISU-180021","first-page":"189","volume":"5","author":"Lyons P.A.","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal on Telecommunications & High Technology Law"},{"key":"bibr19-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Authenticating and using Digital Objects, patent application available at http:\/\/appft.uspto.gov\/netacgi\/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PG01&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=%2220030233570%22.PGNR.&OS=DN\/20030233570&RS=DN\/20030233570, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr20-ISU-180021","unstructured":"DO patent,\n                      supra\n                      note 9."},{"key":"bibr21-ISU-180021","unstructured":"PaskinN., The Handle System and Identity Management (Geneva, Switzerland; 2007), available at https:\/\/www.doi.org\/doi_presentations\/070207-ITU-Handle.ppt, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr22-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Overview of the Digital Object Architecture\n                      (2012), available at http:\/\/www.cnri.reston.va.us\/papers\/OverviewDigitalObjectArchitecture.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr23-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Today the DO Registry and DO Repository have been integrated by CNRI in a reference software implementation called\n                      Cordra,\n                      https:\/\/cordra.org, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr24-ISU-180021","unstructured":"ITU-T Recommendation X.1255, \u201cFramework for discovery of identity management information\u201d, approved on September 4, 2013, available at http:\/\/www.itu.int\/ITU-T\/recommendations\/rec.aspx?rec=11951&lang=en, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr25-ISU-180021","unstructured":"NIST, \u201cFramework for Cyber-Physical Systems\u201d, Section B.5.2.1.1, page 100 (see also page 108), Release 1.0 (May 2016), Cyber Physical Systems Public Working Group, available at https:\/\/s3.amazonaws.com\/nist-sgcps\/cpspwg\/files\/pwgglobal\/CPS_PWG_Framework_for_Cyber_Physical_Systems_Release_1_0Final.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr26-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Contribution of Corporation for National Research Initiatives, FG-DLT (2018), DLT-I-048,\n                      Definition of \u201cblock\u201d as a \u201cdigital entity,\u201d\n                      available at http:\/\/www.cnri.reston.va.us\/documents\/DLT-I-048_CNRI_Contribution_FG_DLT.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr27-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Outcome Document, FG-DLT (2018), DLT-O-013,\n                      Base document for terms and definitions for DLT\n                      ."},{"key":"bibr28-ISU-180021","unstructured":"KahnR. E., The Role of Architecture in Internet Defense, America\u2019s Cyber Future: Security and prosperity in the Information Age, Center for a New American Security (CNAS), Volume II, Chapter XII (May 2011), available at http:\/\/www.cnri.reston.va.us\/papers\/CNAS_CyberSecurity_Kahn.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr29-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Testimony of Robert E. Kahn, Full Committee Hearing:\n                      Energy Efficiency of Blockchain & Similar Technologies\n                      , U.S. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources (8-21-18), available at https:\/\/www.energy.senate.gov\/public\/index.cfm\/hearings-and-business-meetings?Id=61CD5B55-EA3E-41F2-BB4B-3EEB7879131F&Statement_id=8805E2F1-D106-49E2-B675-7EDF6227AE4B, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr30-ISU-180021","unstructured":"LyonsP. A., End-to-End Principle and the Definition of Internet, Working Group on Internet Governance (Nov. 10, 2004), available at https:\/\/www.cnri.reston.va.us\/papers\/Internet-definition-WGIG.pdf, accessed September 2, 2018; see also \u201cComments of Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI)\u201d, In the Matter of Preserving the Open Internet, FCC GN Docket No. 09-191 (2010), available at https:\/\/prodnet.www.neca.org\/publicationsdocs\/wwpdf\/0114cnri.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr31-ISU-180021","unstructured":"For description of DOI System, see\n                      DOI Handbook\n                      , available at http:\/\/www.doi.org\/hb.html."},{"key":"bibr32-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Information and Documentation\u2014Digital Object Identifier System, ISO 26324:2012, available at https:\/\/www.iso.org\/standard\/43506.html, accessed September 2, 2018."},{"key":"bibr33-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Dr. Zhou, Jian,\n                      Digital Object Architecture-based Product Quality Safety Information Traceability System in Infant Formula Industry: Architecture, Advantages and\n                      Impacts, Combating Counterfeit and Substandard ICT Devices, ITU (Geneva; November 2014), presentation available at https:\/\/www.itu.int\/en\/ITU-T\/C-I\/Documents\/WSHP\/S3-2P1-Zhou-Jian.ppt, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr34-ISU-180021","unstructured":"LyonsP.A., Managing information in digital form, Exhibit A,\n                      Information Security & Privacy News\n                      , Information Security Committee, ABA Section of Science & Technology Law (2014), available at http:\/\/www.cnri.reston.va.us\/papers\/Info_Sec_and_Privacy_2014.pdf, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr35-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Entertainment Identifier Registry Association (EIDR), https:\/\/eidr.org\/about-us\/, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr36-ISU-180021","unstructured":"ANNA Presents Demo Version of the Derivatives Service Bureau,\n                      https:\/\/www.anna-web.org\/anna-presents-demo-version-derivatives-service-bureau\/, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr37-ISU-180021","unstructured":"Information on the service is now available at https:\/\/www.anna-dsb.com\/, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr38-ISU-180021","unstructured":"For information on the work of ePIC, visit https:\/\/www.pidconsortium.eu\/, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr39-ISU-180021","unstructured":"See, e.g., Handle.Net Registry, http:\/\/www.handle.net, accessed 2 September 2018."},{"key":"bibr40-ISU-180021","unstructured":"For information about the DONA Foundation, visit https:\/\/www.dona.net, accessed 2 September 2018."}],"container-title":["Information Services and Use"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.3233\/ISU-180021","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.3233\/ISU-180021","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.3233\/ISU-180021","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T12:02:41Z","timestamp":1777464161000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.3233\/ISU-180021"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.3233\/ISU-180021"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/isu-180021","relation":{},"ISSN":["0167-5265","1875-8789"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0167-5265","type":"print"},{"value":"1875-8789","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]}}}