{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T22:40:34Z","timestamp":1779403234823,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"IOS Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9781643686615","type":"electronic"}],"license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779321600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Ontology engineering plays a critical role in modelling structured knowledge and ensuring semantic interoperability in digital healthcare. However, manually developing ontologies is time-consuming and dependent on human expertise. This study investigates the utility of large language models (LLMs) on enhancing ontology development with a human-in-the-loop workflow. LLMs were integrated at three checkpoints: (1) term extraction, (2) class and hierarchy definition, and (3) relation specification. Two experimental settings were tested, including LLM-only generation and LLM with additional manual inputs. Results were compared against the stage-wise outputs from a manually constructed ontology using precision, recall, and F1 metrics. Findings showed that human-in-the-loop input consistently improves output quality, while LLMs perform better in early conceptualisation stages than later formalisation stages. This study highlights the complementary strengths of transformer-based reasoning and human validation and presents a reproducible framework for stage-wise evaluation of LLM-assisted ontology engineering. The findings offer practical guidance for integrating generative AI into ontology-driven health data modelling and standardisation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3233\/shti260304","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T22:01:09Z","timestamp":1779400869000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Enhancing Ontology Engineering with Large Language Models: A Stage-Wise Human-in-the-Loop Study"],"prefix":"10.3233","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-3073-9514","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xuefei","family":"Ding","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic, Electrical and Systems Engineering, University of Birmingham, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7938-0269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Omid","family":"Pournik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic, Electrical and Systems Engineering, University of Birmingham, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9814-3023","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Saadullah Farooq","family":"Abbasi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic, Electrical and Systems Engineering, University of Birmingham, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-0538-2307","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Linxue","family":"Bai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic, Electrical and Systems Engineering, University of Birmingham, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1054-6368","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gregory","family":"Epiphaniou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Warwick, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8594-1912","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicholas","family":"Matragkas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CEA, List, Universit\u00e9 Paris-Saclay, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3873-4512","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stuart","family":"Harrison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ETHOS Digital Health, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2609-575X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos Luis","family":"Parra-Calder\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"European Federation for Medical Informatics, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5473-135X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Theodoros","family":"Arvanitis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic, Electrical and Systems Engineering, University of Birmingham, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"7437","container-title":["Studies in Health Technology and Informatics","Opening the Personal Gate between Technology and Health Care"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/ebooks.iospress.nl\/pdf\/doi\/10.3233\/SHTI260304","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T22:01:09Z","timestamp":1779400869000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ebooks.iospress.nl\/doi\/10.3233\/SHTI260304"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"ISBN":["9781643686615"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/shti260304","relation":{},"ISSN":["0926-9630","1879-8365"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0926-9630","type":"print"},{"value":"1879-8365","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]}}}