{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T13:10:39Z","timestamp":1790169039352,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JAD"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,14]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Neuropsychological assessment using the Boston Process Approach (BPA) suggests that an analysis of the strategy or the process by which tasks and neuropsychological tests are completed, and the errors made during test completion convey much information regarding underlying brain and cognition and are as important as overall summary scores. Research over the last several decades employing an analysis of process and errors has been able to dissociate between dementia patients diagnosed with Alzheimer\u2019s disease, vascular dementia associated with MRI-determined white matter alterations, and Parkinson\u2019s disease; and between mild cognitive impairment subtypes. Nonetheless, BPA methods can be labor intensive to deploy. However, the recent availability of digital platforms for neuropsychological test administration and scoring now enables reliable, rapid, and objective data collection. Further, digital technology can quantify highly nuanced data previously unobtainable to define neurocognitive constructs with high accuracy. In this paper, a brief review of the BPA is provided. Studies that demonstrate how digital technology translates BPA into specific neurocognitive constructs using the Clock Drawing Test, Backward Digit Span Test, and a Digital Pointing Span Test are described. Implications for using data driven artificial intelligence-supported analytic approaches enabling the creation of more sensitive and specific detection\/diagnostic algorithms for putative neurodegenerative illness are also discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3233\/jad-220096","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,22]],"date-time":"2022-04-22T11:37:46Z","timestamp":1650627466000},"page":"1419-1432","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["The Boston Process Approach and Digital Neuropsychological Assessment: Past Research and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"87","author":[{"given":"David J.","family":"Libon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"New Jersey Institute for Successful Aging, Rowan University, School of Osteopathic Medicine, NJ, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rod","family":"Swenson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of North Dakota School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Grand Forks, ND, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melissa","family":"Lamar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rush Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Center and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Catherine C.","family":"Price","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ganesh","family":"Baliga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alvaro","family":"Pascual-Leone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hinda and Arthur Marcus Institute for Aging Research and Deanna and Sidney Wolk Center for Memory Health, Hebrew Senior Life, Boston, MA, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA"},{"name":"Guttmann Brain Health Institute, Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rhoda","family":"Au","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Anatomy & Neurobiology and Neurology; Framingham Heart Study, Slone Epidemiology Center and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Research Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA"},{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephanie","family":"Cosentino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Taub Institute and Sergievsky Center, Cognitive Neuroscience Division, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stacy L.","family":"Andersen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","reference":[{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1223","DOI":"10.1080\/13854046.2013.833295","article-title":"Edith Kaplan and the Boston Process Approach","volume":"27","author":"Libon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref2","unstructured":"Milberg WP , Hebben N , Kaplan E (2009) The Boston Process Approach to neuropsychological assessment. In Neuropsychological assessment of neuropsychiatric and neuromedical disorders, Grant I, Adams KM, eds. Oxford University Press, pp. 42\u201365."},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref3","first-page":"353","article-title":"Process and achievement","volume":"7","author":"Werner","year":"1937","journal-title":"Harvard Educ Rev"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1176\/jnp.2.1.72","article-title":"The process approach to neuropsychological assessment of psychiatric patients","volume":"2","author":"Kaplan","year":"1990","journal-title":"J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.12.10.675","article-title":"A human cerebral deconnection syndrome: A preliminary report","volume":"12","author":"Geschwind","year":"1962","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1201","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.50.5.1201-a","article-title":"A human cerebral deconnection syndrome: A preliminary report","volume":"50","author":"Geschwind","year":"1998","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1155\/2010\/505979","article-title":"The dysexecutive syndrome associated with ischaemic vascular disease and related subcortical neuropathology: A Boston process approach","volume":"22","author":"Lamar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Behav Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1080\/13854040490507181","article-title":"From Binswanger\u2019s disease to leukoaraiosis: What we have learned about subcortical vascular dementia","volume":"8","author":"Libon","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1987.00520130013009","article-title":"Leuko-araiosis","volume":"44","author":"Hachinski","year":"1987","journal-title":"Arch Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.11.4.523","article-title":"Perseverative behavior in Alzheimer\u2019s disease and subcortical ischemic vascular dementia","volume":"11","author":"Lamar","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.11.3.400","article-title":"Impairment in category fluency in ischemic vascular dementia","volume":"11","author":"Carew","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/16.6.547","article-title":"Different underlying mechanisms for deficits in concept formation in dementia","volume":"16","author":"Giovannetti","year":"2001","journal-title":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1076\/clin.16.1.81.8330","article-title":"Error analysis of the nine-word California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT-9) among older adults with and without dementia","volume":"16","author":"Davis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"944","DOI":"10.1080\/13854040802681664","article-title":"Leukoaraiosis severity and list-learning in dementia","volume":"23","author":"Price","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617711001238","article-title":"Dysexecutive functioning in mild cognitive impairment: Derailment in temporal gradients","volume":"18","author":"Eppig","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Int Neuropsychol Soc"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617711000944","article-title":"Verbal serial list learning in mild cognitive impairment: A profile analysis of interference, forgetting, and errors","volume":"17","author":"Libon","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Int Neuropsychol Soc"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.00361","article-title":"Marrying past and present neuropsychology: Is the future of the process-based approach technology-based?","volume":"11","author":"Diaz-Orueta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Psychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-150128","article-title":"Subtle cognitive decline and biomarker staging in preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"47","author":"Edmonds","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-140276","article-title":"Neuropsychological criteria for mild cognitive impairment improves diagnostic precision, biomarker associations, and progression rates","volume":"42","author":"Bondi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-210513","article-title":"Digital neuropsychological assessment: New technology for measuring subtle neuropsychological behavior","volume":"82","author":"Libon","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref23","unstructured":"Lezak M , Howison DB , Loring DW (2004), Neuropsycho-logical assessment (4th ed.). Oxford University Press, New York."},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acn.2004.02.005","article-title":"Assessment practices of clinical neuropsychologists in the United States and Canada: A survey of INS, NAN, and APA Division 40 members","volume":"20","author":"Rabin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref25","first-page":"342","article-title":"Der gang und der gegenw\u00e4rtige stand der apraxieforschung","volume":"1","author":"Kleist","year":"1912","journal-title":"Neurol Psychiatrie"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref26","unstructured":"Benton A , Tranel D (1993) Visuoperceptual, visuospatial, and visuoconstructional disorders. In Clinical Neuropsy-chology (3rd ed.), Heilman KM, Valenstien E, eds. Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 165-213."},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref27","unstructured":"Critchley MM (1953) The parietal lobes. Edward Arnold, London."},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref29","volume-title":"Aphasia and kindred disorders of speech","author":"Head","year":"1926"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1203","DOI":"10.1177\/003591573502800938","article-title":"Some observations on apraxia","volume":"28","author":"Mayer-Gross","year":"1935","journal-title":"Proc Royal Soc Med"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/83.2.243","article-title":"Visuo-constructive disabilities associated with lesions of the left cerebral hemisphere","volume":"83","author":"McFie","year":"1960","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-193412000-00002","article-title":"Constructional apraxia: Psychological views on the conception of space","volume":"80","author":"Van der Horst","year":"1934","journal-title":"J Ner Ment Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1037\/neu0000549","article-title":"Clock drawing test in mild cognitive impairment: Correlation with cerebral perfusion in single-photon emission computed tomography","volume":"33","author":"Duro","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2017.02.019","article-title":"Cortical signature of clock drawing performance in Alzheimer\u2019s disease and mild cognitive impairment","volume":"90","author":"Hirjak","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Psychia Res"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2010.10.069","article-title":"Neural correlates of performance on the different scoring systems of the clock drawing test","volume":"487","author":"Matsuoka","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2019.00025","article-title":"The neural correlates of the Clock-Drawing Test in healthy aging","volume":"3","author":"Talwar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Hum Neurosci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1080\/01688638008403793","article-title":"Normative data on the Boston diagnostic aphasia examination, parietal lobe battery, and the Boston Naming Test","volume":"2","author":"Borod","year":"1980","journal-title":"J Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1097\/00146965-200306000-00001","article-title":"Discrimination of dementia with Lewy bodies from Alzheimer disease and Parkinson disease using the clock drawing test","volume":"16","author":"Cahn-Weiner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cogn Behav Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref39","volume-title":"Clock drawing: A neuropsychological analysis","author":"Freedman","year":"1994"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref40","volume-title":"The Kaplan Baycrest Neurocognitive Assessment","author":"Leach","year":"2000"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/11.3.193","article-title":"Further analyses of clock drawings among demented and non-demented older subjects","volume":"11","author":"Libon","year":"1996","journal-title":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1080\/0361073X.2013.741996","article-title":"The Framingham Heart Study clock drawing performance: Normative data from the offspring cohort","volume":"39","author":"Nyborn","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp Aging Res"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-2626(92)90112-Y","article-title":"Quantitative and qualitative analyses of clock drawings in Alzheimer\u2019s and Huntington\u2019s disease","volume":"18","author":"Rouleau","year":"1992","journal-title":"Brain Cogn"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.64.5.588","article-title":"CLOX: An executive clock drawing task","volume":"64","author":"Royall","year":"1998","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.930080606","article-title":"Clock-drawing and dementia in the community: A longitudinal study","volume":"8","author":"Shulman","year":"1993","journal-title":"Int J Geriatr Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.1992.tb02106.x","article-title":"The Clock Test: A sensitive measure to differentiate normal elderly from those with Alzheimer disease","volume":"40","author":"Tuokko","year":"1992","journal-title":"J Am Geriatr Soc"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/8.5.405","article-title":"Clock drawing as an assessment tool for dementia","volume":"8","author":"Libon","year":"1993","journal-title":"Arch Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1097\/01.wnn.0000119564.08162.46","article-title":"Clock drawing errors in dementia: Neuropsychological and neuroanatomical considerations","volume":"17","author":"Cosentino","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cogn Behav Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3956(75)90026-6","article-title":"\u201cMini-mental state\". A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician","volume":"12","author":"Folstein","year":"1975","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1159\/000324639","article-title":"Clock drawing in the Montreal Cognitive Assessment: Recommendations for dementia assessment","volume":"31","author":"Price","year":"2011","journal-title":"Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1611","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-170444","article-title":"Age and graphomotor decision making assessed with the Digital Clock Drawing Test: The Framingham Heart Study","volume":"60","author":"Piers","year":"2017","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-201249","article-title":"Normative references for graphomotor and latency digital clock drawing metrics for adults age 55 and older: Operationalizing the production of a normal appearing clock","volume":"82","author":"Davoudi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.3233\/JPD-202399","article-title":"Parkinson\u2019s disease cognitive phenotypes show unique clock drawing features when measured with digital technology","volume":"11","author":"Dion","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Parkinsons Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2016.03.034","article-title":"Cognitive and connectome properties detectable through individual differences in graphomotor organization","volume":"85","author":"Lamar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617714000757","article-title":"Digital Clock Drawing: Differentiating \u201cthinking\u201d versus \u201cdoing\u201d in younger and older adults with depression","volume":"20","author":"Cohen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Int Neuropsychol Soc"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref61","first-page":"113","article-title":"Deficits in processing speed and decision making in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: The Digit Clock Drawing Test (dCDT)","volume":"1","author":"Libon","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Multiple Sclerosis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-191089","article-title":"Cognitive correlates of digital clock drawing metrics in older adults with and without mild cognitive impairment","volume":"75","author":"Dion","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2021.08.002","article-title":"Quantitative digital clock drawing test as a sensitive tool to detect subtle cognitive impairments in early stage Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"90","author":"Schejter-Margalit","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parkinsonism Relat Disord"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.01259","article-title":"Assessing performance on Digital Clock Drawing Test in aged patients with cerebral small vessel disease","volume":"10","author":"Zh\u00e0o","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1007\/s10994-015-5529-5","article-title":"Learning classification models of cognitive conditions from subtle behaviors in the digital clock drawing test","volume":"102","author":"Souillard-Mandar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mach Learn"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617720000144","article-title":"Machine learning analysis of digital clock drawing test performance for differential classification of mild cognitive impairment subtypes versus Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"26","author":"Binaco","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Int Neuropsychol Soc"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-201129","article-title":"classifying non-dementia and Alzheimer\u2019s disease\/vascular dementia patients using kinematic, time-based, and visuospatial parameters: The digital clock drawing test","volume":"82","author":"Davoudi","year":"2121","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3543","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-40010-0","article-title":"Diagnostic value of digital clock drawing test in comparison with CERAD neuropsychological battery total score for discrimination of patients in the early course of Alzheimer\u2019s disease from healthy individuals","volume":"9","author":"M\u00fcller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2017.00101","article-title":"increased diagnostic accuracy of digital vs. conventional clock drawing test for discrimination of patients in the early course of Alzheimer\u2019s disease from cognitively healthy individuals","volume":"9","author":"M\u00fcller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205018666211210150808","article-title":"extended application of digital clock drawing test in the evaluation of Alzheimer\u2019s disease based on artificial intelligence and the neural basis","volume":"18","author":"Zheng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr Alzheimer Res"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1844","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000011697","article-title":"association of digital clock drawing with pet amyloid and tau pathology in normal older adults","volume":"96","author":"Rentz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000004190","article-title":"feasibility and rationale for incorporating frailty and cognitive screening protocols in a preoperative anesthesia clinic","volume":"129","author":"Amini","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anesth Analg"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref74","first-page":"110","article-title":"Proof of concept: Digital clock drawing behaviors prior to transcatheter aortic valve replacement may predict length of hospital stay and cost of care","volume":"2","author":"Wiggins","year":"2020","journal-title":"Explor Med"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000003735","article-title":"clock drawing performance slows for older adults after total knee replacement surgery","volume":"129","author":"Hizel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anesth Analg"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1111\/aas.13756","article-title":"A novel digital clock drawing test as a screening tool for perioperative neurocognitive disorders: A feasibility study","volume":"65","author":"Buckley","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol Scand"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1111\/aas.14003","article-title":"Digital clock drawing test metrics in older patients before and after endoscopy with sedation: An exploratory analysis [published online ahead","volume":"66","author":"Buckley","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol Scand"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lamar M , Swenson R , Penney DL , Kaplan E , Libon DJ (2018) Digit span. In Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsy-chology, Kreutzer JS, DeLuca J, Caplan B, eds. Springer, Cham.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-57111-9_1288"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(08)70493-3","article-title":"Measures of short-term memory: A historical review","volume":"43","author":"Richardson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref80","first-page":"373","article-title":"Mental tests and measurements","volume":"15","author":"Cattell","journal-title":"Mind"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.3406\/psy.1904.3676","article-title":"Application des m\u00e9thodes nouvelles au diagnostic du niveau intellectuel chez des enfants normaux et anormaux d\u2019hospice et d\u2019\u00e9cole primairee","volume":"11","author":"Binet","year":"1905","journal-title":"Psychologique"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref82","volume-title":"The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence","author":"Wechsler","year":"1944"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2006.07.009","article-title":"Alterations in working memory as a function of leukoaraiosis in dementia","volume":"45","author":"Lamar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2597","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2008.04.007","article-title":"The impact of region-specific leukoaraiosis on working memory deficits in dementia","volume":"46","author":"Lamar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-170555","article-title":"Assessing working memory in mild cognitive impairment with serial order recall","volume":"61","author":"Emrani","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(74)90032-3","article-title":"Relation of forward and backward digit repetition to neurological impairment in children with learning disabilities","volume":"12","author":"Rudel","year":"1974","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1111\/jnp.12208","article-title":"SERIAL-ORDER recall in working memory across the cognitive spectrum of Parkinson\u2019s disease and neuroimaging correlates","volume":"15","author":"Bezdicek","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-201125","article-title":"Neurocognitive constructs underlying executive control in statistically-determined mild cognitive impairment","volume":"82","author":"Emrani","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref90","first-page":"86","article-title":"Assessing the capacity for mental manipulation in patients with statistically determined mild cognitive impairment using digital technology","volume":"2","author":"Emrani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Explor Med"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30367-6","article-title":"Dementia prevention, intervention, and care: 2020 report of the Lancet Commission","volume":"396","author":"Livingston","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afg097","article-title":"Diagnosing cognitive impairment and dementia in primary health care \u2013a more active approach is needed","volume":"32","author":"L\u00f6pp\u00f6nen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2964","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.160.19.2964","article-title":"The detection of dementia in the primary care setting","volume":"160","author":"Valcour","year":"2000","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref95","first-page":"23","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease - Why we need early diagnosis","volume":"9","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Degener Neurol Neuromuscul Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.04.026","article-title":"Artificial intelligence and neuropsychological measures: The case of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"114","author":"Battista","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci Biobehav Rev"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.37349\/emed.2020.00028","article-title":"Identification of digital voice biomarkers for cognitive health","volume":"1","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Explor Med"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-201119","article-title":"Long life family study. digital technology differentiates graphomotor and information processing speed patterns of behavior","volume":"82","author":"Andersen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12292","DOI":"10.1002\/dad2.12292","article-title":"Digitally generated Trail Making Test data: Analysis using hidden Markov modeling","volume":"14","author":"Du","year":"2022","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement (Amst)"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1080\/13854046.2016.1238510","article-title":"Multicomponent analysis of a digital Trail Making Test","volume":"31","author":"Fellows","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin Neuropsychol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220096_ref101","first-page":"232","article-title":"Pervasive computing technologies to continuously assess Alzheimer\u2019s disease progression and intervention efficacy","volume":"7","author":"Lyons","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"}],"container-title":["Journal of Alzheimer's Disease"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/content.iospress.com\/download?id=10.3233\/JAD-220096","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T10:06:05Z","timestamp":1777370765000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full\/10.3233\/JAD-220096"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"David","family":"Loewenstein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,14]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/jad-220096","relation":{},"ISSN":["1387-2877","1875-8908"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1387-2877","type":"print"},{"value":"1875-8908","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,14]]}}}