{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,10]],"date-time":"2026-06-10T22:23:26Z","timestamp":1781130206370,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":125,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["JAD"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease have difficulty maintaining independent living abilities as the disease progresses, causing an increased burden of care on family caregivers and the healthcare system and related financial strain. This patient group is expected to continue to expand as life expectancy climbs. Current diagnostics for Alzheimer\u2019s disease are complex, unaffordable, and invasive without regard to diagnosis quality at early stages, which urgently calls for more technical improvements for diagnosis specificity. Optical coherence tomography or tomographic angiography has been shown to identify retinal thickness loss and lower vascular density present earlier than symptom onset in these patients. The retina is an extension of the central nervous system and shares anatomic and functional similarities with the brain. Ophthalmological examinations can be an efficient tool to offer a window into cerebral pathology with the merit of easy operation. In this review, we summarized the latest observations on retinal pathology in Alzheimer\u2019s disease and discussed the feasibility of retinal imaging in diagnostic prediction, as well as limitations in current retinal examinations for Alzheimer\u2019s disease diagnosis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3233\/jad-220596","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,14]],"date-time":"2022-10-14T11:31:16Z","timestamp":1665747076000},"page":"1341-1357","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Retinal Examinations Provides Early Warning of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"90","author":[{"given":"Xinyi","family":"Xia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China"},{"name":"National Center for Neurological Disorders, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qi","family":"Qin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China"},{"name":"National Center for Neurological Disorders, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yankun","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Meng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunsi","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yi","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Innovation Center for Neurological Disorders, Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","reference":[{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2112","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)67889-0","article-title":"Global prevalence of dementia: A Delphi consensus study","volume":"366","author":"Ferri","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1080\/15216540701283882","article-title":"Soluble protein oligomers as emerging toxins in Alzheimer\u2019s and other amyloid diseases","volume":"59","author":"Ferreira","year":"2007","journal-title":"IUBMB Life"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6084","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(17)38495-8","article-title":"Microtubule-associated protein tau. A component of Alzheimer paired helical filaments","volume":"261","author":"Grundke-Iqbal","year":"1986","journal-title":"J Biol Chem"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(86)90495-2","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease and tau proteins","volume":"2","author":"Brion","year":"1986","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2018.02.018","article-title":"NIA-AA Research Framework: Toward a biological definition of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"14","author":"Jack","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2011.03.008","article-title":"The diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment due to Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer\u2019s Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"7","author":"Albert","year":"2011","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0762-2","article-title":"Diagnostic value of plasma phosphorylated tau181 in Alzheimer\u2019s disease and frontotemporal lobar degeneration","volume":"26","author":"Thijssen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-150238","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease cerebrospinal fluid and neuroimaging biomarkers: Diagnostic accuracy and relationship to drug efficacy","volume":"46","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(16)00070-3","article-title":"CSF and blood biomarkers for the diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"15","author":"Olsson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2010.4","article-title":"Cerebrospinal fluid and plasma biomarkers in Alzheimer disease","volume":"6","author":"Blennow","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat Rev Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref11","first-page":"192","article-title":"Positron emission tomography in dementia","volume":"97","author":"Santens","year":"1997","journal-title":"Acta Neurol Belg"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(08)70001-2","article-title":"Imaging of amyloid beta in Alzheimer\u2019s disease with 18F-BAY94-9172, a novel PET tracer: Proof of mechanism","volume":"7","author":"Rowe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(09)70299-6","article-title":"Hypothetical model of dynamic biomarkers of the Alzheimer\u2019s pathological cascade","volume":"9","author":"Jack","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2007.124149","article-title":"Hippocampal activation in adults with mild cognitive impairment predicts subsequent cognitive decline","volume":"79","author":"Miller","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2011.05.005","article-title":"Neuroimaging markers for the prediction and early diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease dementia","volume":"34","author":"Ewers","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410290110","article-title":"Visual dysfunction in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Relation to normal aging","volume":"29","author":"Cronin-Golomb","year":"1991","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.45.1.68","article-title":"Visual field loss in senile dementia of the Alzheimer\u2019s type","volume":"45","author":"Trick","year":"1995","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e668","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.13319","article-title":"Visual system manifestations of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"95","author":"Kusne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02598307","article-title":"Visual impairment and cognitive dysfunction in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"6","author":"Uhlmann","year":"1991","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.1961.01840020577022","article-title":"Retinal vascular patterns. II. Human retinal vessels studied in three dimensions","volume":"65","author":"Toussaint","year":"1961","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7580.2005.00395.x","article-title":"Retinal vascular image analysis as a potential screening tool for cerebrovascular disease: A rationale based on homology between cerebral and retinal microvasculatures","volume":"206","author":"Patton","year":"2005","journal-title":"J Anat"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1957169","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography","volume":"254","author":"Huang","year":"1991","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0161-6420(95)31032-9","article-title":"Imaging of macular diseases with optical coherence tomography","volume":"102","author":"Puliafito","year":"1995","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/s40035-021-00230-9","article-title":"Advances in retina imaging as potential biomarkers for early diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl Neurodegener"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1159\/000335154","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease in the retina: Imaging retinal abeta plaques for early diagnosis and therapy assessment","volume":"10","author":"Koronyo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurodegener Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2017.11.003","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography angiography","volume":"64","author":"Spaide","year":"2018","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1038\/386671a0","article-title":"Mechanisms of angiogenesis","volume":"386","author":"Risau","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awy338","article-title":"Demyelination precedes axonal loss in the transneuronal spread of human neurodegenerative disease","volume":"142","author":"You","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"828","DOI":"10.3109\/02713683.2010.494240","article-title":"Distribution of amyloid precursor protein and amyloid-beta in ocular hypertensive C57BL\/6 mouse eyes","volume":"35","author":"Kipfer-Kauer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Curr Eye Res"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2019.09.013","article-title":"Differential effects of aging in the macular retinal layers, neuroretinal rim, and peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer","volume":"127","author":"Chauhan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.87.7.899","article-title":"Retinal thickness decreases with age: An OCT study","volume":"87","author":"Alamouti","year":"2003","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2014.10.010","article-title":"Retinal neurodegeneration on optical coherence tomography and cerebral atrophy","volume":"584","author":"Ong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109824","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2019.109824","article-title":"Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness is associated with hippocampus and lingual gyrus volumes in nondemented older adults","volume":"99","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2017.09.003","article-title":"Retinal neurodegeneration and brain MRI markers: The Rotterdam Study","volume":"60","author":"Mutlu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurobiol Aging"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1016\/0197-4580(96)00010-3","article-title":"Retinal pathology in Alzheimer\u2019s disease. I. Ganglion cell loss in foveal\/parafoveal retina","volume":"17","author":"Blanks","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurobiol Aging"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1016\/0197-4580(96)00009-7","article-title":"Retinal pathology in Alzheimer\u2019s disease. II. Regional neuron loss and glial changes in GCL","volume":"17","author":"Blanks","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurobiol Aging"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.73.6.657","article-title":"Detection of grey matter loss in mild Alzheimer\u2019s disease with voxel based morphometry","volume":"73","author":"Frisoni","year":"2002","journal-title":"J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-3955(05)70467-3","article-title":"Control of cerebral and ocular blood flow autoregulation in neonates","volume":"44","author":"Hardy","year":"1997","journal-title":"Pediatr Clin North Am"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref39","first-page":"1217","article-title":"Vascularization of the human fetal retina: Roles of vasculogenesis and angiogenesis","volume":"41","author":"Hughes","year":"2000","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1987","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awq127","article-title":"Retinal microvascular abnormalities and subclinical magnetic resonance imaging brain infarct: A prospective study","volume":"133","author":"Cheung","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7290","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21197290","article-title":"Retinal degeneration and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: An evolving link","volume":"21","author":"Ashok","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"issue":"Suppl 1","key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.06.020","article-title":"Identification of amyloid plaques in retinas from Alzheimer\u2019s patients and noninvasive optical imaging of retinal plaques in a mouse model","volume":"54","author":"Koronyo-Hamaoui","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.5114\/fn.2017.68584","article-title":"Retinal ganglion cell\/inner plexiform layer thickness in patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"55","author":"Zivkovic","year":"2017","journal-title":"Folia Neuropathol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(16)00068-5","article-title":"Retinal thickness measured with optical coherence tomography and risk of disability worsening in multiple sclerosis: A cohort study","volume":"15","author":"Martinez-Lapiscina","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2018.1563","article-title":"Association of retinal neurodegeneration on optical coherence tomography with dementia: A population-based study","volume":"75","author":"Mutlu","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2017.00359","article-title":"Repeatability and reproducibility of retinal neuronal and axonal measures on spectral-domain optical coherence tomography in patients with cognitive impairment","volume":"8","author":"Loh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0134750","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0134750","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Coppola","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(16)30029-1","article-title":"Relation of cerebral vessel disease to Alzheimer\u2019s disease dementia and cognitive function in elderly people: A cross-sectional study","volume":"15","author":"Arvanitakis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awv029","article-title":"Prevalence and prognosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease at the mild cognitive impairment stage","volume":"138","author":"Vos","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000513","article-title":"New insights into cerebral small vessel disease and vascular cognitive impairment from MRI","volume":"31","author":"Smith","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr Opin Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1097\/WNO.0000000000000580","article-title":"Altered macular microvasculature in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer disease","volume":"38","author":"Jiang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Neuroophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2019-314127","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography angiography in preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"104","author":"van de Kreeke","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0197-4580(97)00075-4","article-title":"Strategies for improving the postmortem neuropathological diagnosis of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"18","author":"Trojanowski","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neurobiol Aging"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198608213150804","article-title":"Optic-nerve degeneration in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"315","author":"Hinton","year":"1986","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24548","article-title":"Melanopsin retinal ganglion cell loss in Alzheimer disease","volume":"79","author":"La Morgia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.13-12888","article-title":"Ocular changes in TgF344-AD rat model of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"55","author":"Tsai","year":"2014","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-018-0650-x","article-title":"Amyloid-beta and phosphorylated tau in post-mortem Alzheimer\u2019s disease retinas","volume":"6","author":"den Haan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol Commun"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e93621","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.93621","article-title":"Retinal amyloid pathology and proof-of-concept imaging trial in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"2","author":"Koronyo","year":"2017","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1111\/bpa.12070","article-title":"Beta-amyloid, phospho-tau and alpha-synuclein deposits similar to those in the brain are not identified in the eyes of Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s disease patients","volume":"24","author":"Ho","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Pathol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-018-0577-2","article-title":"Different curcumin forms selectively bind fibrillar amyloid beta in post mortem Alzheimer\u2019s disease brains: Implications for in-vivo diagnostics","volume":"6","author":"den Haan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol Commun"},{"issue":"Suppl 2","key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2011-102100","article-title":"Curcuminoid binds to amyloid-beta1-42 oligomer and fibril","volume":"24","author":"Yanagisawa","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2007.04613.x","article-title":"Curcumin labels amyloid pathology, disrupts existing plaques, and partially restores distorted neurites in an Alzheimer mouse model","volume":"102","author":"Garcia-Alloza","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Neurochem"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5136","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.08-1849","article-title":"Amyloid-beta deposits lead to retinal degeneration in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease","volume":"49","author":"Ning","year":"2008","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.08-2384","article-title":"Beta-amyloid deposition and functional impairment in the retina of the APPswe\/PS1DeltaE9 transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"50","author":"Perez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1097\/WNR.0b013e3283497334","article-title":"Retinal amyloid peptides and complement factor H in transgenic models of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"22","author":"Alexandrov","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035002","DOI":"10.1117\/1.NPh.8.3.035002","article-title":"Concurrent OCT and OCT angiography of retinal neurovascular degeneration in the 5XFAD Alzheimer\u2019s disease mice","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-020-01076-4","article-title":"Retinal capillary degeneration and blood-retinal barrier disruption in murine models of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"8","author":"Shi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol Commun"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2018.1578","article-title":"Association of retinal nerve fiber layer thinning with current and future cognitive decline: A study using optical coherence tomography","volume":"75","author":"Ko","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1001","DOI":"10.12659\/MSM.914889","article-title":"Peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A comparison of eyes of patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease, primary open-angle glaucoma, and preperimetric glaucoma and healthy controls","volume":"25","author":"Zabel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Med Sci Monit"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2020.00081","article-title":"Reduced retinal thickness predicts age-related changes in cognitive function","volume":"12","author":"Mammadova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578698","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.578698","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography in mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"11","author":"Mejia-Vergara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1016\/S1388-2457(01)00620-4","article-title":"Morphological and functional retinal impairment in Alzheimer\u2019s disease patients","volume":"112","author":"Parisi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin Neurophysiol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1097\/01.wno.0000204645.56873.26","article-title":"Relationship between cognitive impairment and retinal morphological and visual functional abnormalities in Alzheimer disease","volume":"26","author":"Iseri","year":"2006","journal-title":"J Neuroophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e454","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.12977","article-title":"Ganglion cell layer measurements correlate with disease severity in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"94","author":"Garcia-Martin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2010.06.006","article-title":"Retinal nerve fiber layer structure abnormalities in early Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Evidence in optical coherence tomography","volume":"480","author":"Lu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-141659","article-title":"Retinal ganglion cell analysis using high-definition optical coherence tomography in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"45","author":"Cheung","year":"2015","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2285","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.06-1029","article-title":"Retinal abnormalities in early Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"48","author":"Berisha","year":"2007","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.2174\/156720512802455340","article-title":"Structural and functional impairment of the retina and optic nerve in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"9","author":"Moschos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr Alzheimer Res"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2010.199232","article-title":"Risk factors for progressive axonal degeneration of the retinal nerve fibre layer in multiple sclerosis patients","volume":"95","author":"Garcia-Martin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205011666140131114418","article-title":"Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness is associated with episodic memory deficit in mild cognitive impairment patients","volume":"11","author":"Shen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr Alzheimer Res"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.5496","article-title":"Correlation between retinal nerve fibre layer thickness and white matter lesions in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"36","author":"Carazo-Barrios","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Geriatr Psychiatry"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-019-0516-x","article-title":"Retinal thickness as potential biomarker in posterior cortical atrophy and typical Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"11","author":"den Haan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alzheimers Res Ther"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-017-0239-9","article-title":"Retinal vascular and structural changes are associated with amyloid burden in the elderly: Ophthalmic biomarkers of preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"9","author":"Golzan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Alzheimers Res Ther"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-022-00998-6","article-title":"The retinal ganglion cell layer reflects neurodegenerative changes in cognitively unimpaired individuals","volume":"14","author":"Lopez-de-Eguileta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Alzheimers Res Ther"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1111\/ceo.12386","article-title":"Evaluation of the chorioretinal thickness changes in Alzheimer\u2019s disease using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography","volume":"43","author":"Bayhan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Exp Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5953","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.13-12046","article-title":"Evaluation of retinal nerve fiber layer and ganglion cell layer thickness in Alzheimer\u2019s disease using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography","volume":"54","author":"Marziani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2018.3556","article-title":"Association of preclinical Alzheimer disease with optical coherence tomographic angiography findings","volume":"136","author":"O\u2019Bryhim","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1422","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458512439237","article-title":"Degeneration of retinal layers in multiple sclerosis subtypes quantified by optical coherence tomography","volume":"18","author":"Albrecht","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mult Scler"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0192646","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0192646","article-title":"Evaluation of inner retinal layers as biomarkers in mild cognitive impairment to moderate Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"13","author":"Lad","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1177\/1533317515628053","article-title":"Retinal nerve fiber layer thinning in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: A case-control study in comparison to normal aging, Parkinson\u2019s disease, and non-Alzheimer\u2019s dementia","volume":"31","author":"Pillai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1144","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000010146","article-title":"Association of retinal layer measurements and adult cognitive function: A population-based study","volume":"95","author":"Ward","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2020-317659","article-title":"Convolutional neural network to identify symptomatic Alzheimer\u2019s disease using multimodal retinal imaging","volume":"106","author":"Wisely","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trci.2019.08.008","article-title":"Ganglion cell layer thinning in prodromal Alzheimer\u2019s disease defined by amyloid PET","volume":"5","author":"Lopez-de-Eguileta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement (N Y)"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2020.4909","article-title":"Retinal imaging findings in carriers with PSEN1-associated early-onset familial Alzheimer disease before onset of cognitive symptoms","volume":"139","author":"Armstrong","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0248284","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0248284","article-title":"Quantitative assessment of retinal thickness and vessel density using optical coherence tomography angiography in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease and glaucoma","volume":"16","author":"Zabel","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-020-00602-9","article-title":"Association between retinal thickness and beta-amyloid brain accumulation in individuals with subjective cognitive decline: Fundacio ACE Healthy Brain Initiative","volume":"12","author":"Marquie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alzheimers Res Ther"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-200971","article-title":"The retinal vessel density can reflect cognitive function in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Evidence from optical coherence tomography angiography","volume":"79","author":"Yan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e781","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.14381","article-title":"Retinal microvascular attenuation in mental cognitive impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s disease by optical coherence tomography angiography","volume":"98","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2013.06.009","article-title":"Microvascular network alterations in the retina of patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"10","author":"Cheung","year":"2014","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dadm.2015.04.001","article-title":"Retinal microvascular network attenuation in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"1","author":"Williams","year":"2015","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement (Amst)"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572484","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2020.572484","article-title":"Decreased retinal vascular density in Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI): An optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) study","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3447","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.19-27028","article-title":"Comparison of retinal microvasculature in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease and primary open-angle glaucoma by optical coherence tomography angiography","volume":"60","author":"Zabel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-180738","article-title":"Evaluation of ocular perfusion in Alzheimer\u2019s disease using optical coherence tomography angiography","volume":"66","author":"Lahme","year":"2018","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2017-310476","article-title":"Evaluation of optical coherence tomography angiographic findings in Alzheimer\u2019s type dementia","volume":"102","author":"Bulut","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3248","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11113248","article-title":"Retinal vascular study using OCTA in subjects at high genetic risk of developing Alzheimer\u2019s disease and cardiovascular risk factors","volume":"11","author":"Lopez-Cuenca","year":"2022","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2524","DOI":"10.1111\/jgs.17272","article-title":"Cognitive decline in older adults: What can we learn from optical coherence tomography (OCT)-based retinal vascular imaging","volume":"69","author":"Abraham","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Am Geriatr Soc"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-210327","article-title":"Retinal amyloid imaging for screening Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"83","author":"Tadokoro","year":"2021","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2018.2505","article-title":"Mechanisms of cell-to-cell transmission of pathological tau: A review","volume":"76","author":"Gibbons","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-131898","article-title":"Greater attenuation of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness in Alzheimer\u2019s disease patients","volume":"40","author":"Shi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1038\/eye.2014.51","article-title":"Reliability and validity of Cirrus and Spectralis optical coherence tomography for detecting retinal atrophy in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"28","author":"Polo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2007.02.090","article-title":"Abnormal retinal thickness in patients with mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"420","author":"Paquet","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurosci Lett"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16345","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-34577-3","article-title":"Usefulness of peripapillary nerve fiber layer thickness assessed by optical coherence tomography as a biomarker for Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"8","author":"Sanchez","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0232785","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0232785","article-title":"Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness predicts CSF amyloid\/tau before cognitive decline","volume":"15","author":"Asanad","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9580","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-66736-w","article-title":"Systemic hypertension associated retinal microvascular changes can be detected with optical coherence tomography angiography","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4299","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-24090","article-title":"The EYE-MI Pilot Study: A prospective acute coronary syndrome cohort evaluated with retinal optical coherence tomography angiography","volume":"59","author":"Arnould","year":"2018","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0142383","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0142383","article-title":"The effect of axial length on the thickness of intraretinal layers of the macula","volume":"10","author":"Szigeti","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"749","DOI":"10.1080\/02713683.2019.1695843","article-title":"Immediate changes in peripapillary retinal vasculature after intraocular pressure elevation-an optical coherence tomography angiography study","volume":"45","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr Eye Res"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2018.03.026","article-title":"Systemic and ocular determinants of peripapillary retinal nerve fiber layer thickness measurements in the European Eye Epidemiology (E3) population","volume":"125","author":"Mauschitz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3338","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.10-6611","article-title":"Reproducibility of retinal nerve fiber layer thickness measurements using the eye tracker and the retest function of Spectralis SD-OCT in glaucomatous and healthy control eyes","volume":"52","author":"Langenegger","year":"2011","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref120","first-page":"1505","article-title":"Fundus based eye tracker for optical coherence tomography","volume":"2004","author":"Ip","year":"2004","journal-title":"Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4471","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.09-3892","article-title":"Influence of OCT signal strength on macular, optic nerve head, and retinal nerve fiber layer parameters","volume":"51","author":"Samarawickrama","year":"2010","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oret.2019.04.029","article-title":"Signal strength reduction effects in OCT angiography","volume":"3","author":"Yu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ophthalmol Retina"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75008","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.21.7.075008","article-title":"Segmentation of the foveal microvasculature using deep learning networks","volume":"21","author":"Prentasic","year":"2016","journal-title":"J Biomed Opt"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.9.13.5","article-title":"Automated segmentation of optical coherence tomography angiography images: Benchmark data and clinically relevant metrics","volume":"9","author":"Giarratano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl Vis Sci Technol"},{"key":"10.3233\/JAD-220596_ref125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.9.7.46","article-title":"Impact of scan tilt on quantitative assessments using optical coherence tomography angiography","volume":"9","author":"Ji","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl Vis Sci Technol"}],"container-title":["Journal of Alzheimer's Disease"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/content.iospress.com\/download?id=10.3233\/JAD-220596","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T10:07:52Z","timestamp":1777370872000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full\/10.3233\/JAD-220596"}},"subtitle":[],"editor":[{"given":"Jin-Tai","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"editor"}]}],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,6]]},"references-count":125,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4"},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/jad-220596","relation":{},"ISSN":["1387-2877","1875-8908"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1387-2877","type":"print"},{"value":"1875-8908","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,12,6]]}}}