{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T03:26:57Z","timestamp":1773113217643,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"National Institute for Health and Care Research","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]],"date-time":"2026-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772323200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001921","name":"Public Health Research programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIHR129440"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR129440"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001921","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"abs1-1\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study employed an interdisciplinary approach to assess the impact of agricultural production modifications and dietary changes on ammonia emissions, health outcomes and health inequalities. Statistical and econometric methods were applied to analyse agricultural emission trends and dietary patterns. Spatial data analysis and numerical modelling techniques were used to simulate the dispersion and transformation of atmospheric pollutants. Health impact modelling estimated mortality and morbidity outcomes under various policy scenarios, while cost-effectiveness and cost\u2013benefit analyses supported decision-making. A participatory approach involving multistakeholder engagement was utilised to enhance policy relevance and implementation feasibility.<\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>A systematic scoping review of academic studies on agricultural-derived air pollution and clinically coded outcomes revealed very limited research on this topic, which presents an inconsistent picture as to whether agricultural-derived particulate matter affects health.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"abs1-2\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Key findings indicate that dietary modifications have greater potential health benefits than direct reductions in particulate matter exposure from ammonia emissions. Small reductions in meat and dairy consumption, supported by taxation and subsidies, could help achieve environmental and health targets. A 20% meat and dairy tax, coupled with a 20% subsidy on fruits and vegetables, could reduce meat consumption by 21.5% and increase fruit and vegetable intake by up to 13.5%. These dietary shifts also significantly lower greenhouse gas emissions and water use.<\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>While ammonia\u2019s environmental effects are well documented, its direct health impacts remain uncertain. Epidemiological studies suggest a possible association between ammonium-derived particulate matter and increased mortality and cardiorespiratory diseases, though findings are inconsistent. Toxicological assessments indicate limited intrinsic toxicity of ammonium nitrate and sulfate. A \u2018high-ambition mitigation\u2019 scenario integrating ammonia reduction measures with dietary shifts could prevent 67,000 premature deaths and 270,000 cases of respiratory diseases over 30 years. Notably, older adults and lower-income populations would experience the greatest health benefits. Most farm-based ammonia reduction strategies demonstrated net economic benefits, with only a few measures having limited abatement potential. Additionally, reduced greenhouse gas emissions further amplified the benefits of each scenario.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"abs1-3\">\n                    <jats:title>Limitations<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Despite robust modelling techniques and multistakeholder engagement, several limitations exist. The direct health effects of ammonia-derived particulate matter remain an area of uncertainty, necessitating further epidemiological research. Additionally, while economic and environmental benefits were quantified, behavioural responses to policy interventions \u2013 such as consumer acceptance of dietary changes \u2013 require further exploration. The study primarily focused on UK-specific data, limiting generalisability to other regions with different agricultural practices and policy landscapes. Finally, unintended consequences of dietary shifts on food security and cultural preferences were not fully explored, indicating the need for future research to refine policy recommendations.<\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>The Assessing Mitigation Pathways to Realise Public Health Benefits of Air Pollutant Emission Reductions from Agriculture project provides a comprehensive, interdisciplinary framework for evaluating integrated policy measures. It underscores the importance of sustainable agricultural and dietary transitions in achieving cobenefits for public health and environmental sustainability, while emphasising the need for continued research to address remaining uncertainties.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"abs1-4\">\n                    <jats:title>Future work<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>More detailed spatial and temporal analyses are required to fully understand the potential importance of significant local sources on human health in specific areas\/times of year. There is a need to better align evidence of studies, such as Assessing Mitigation Pathways to Realise Public Health Benefits of Air Pollutant Emission Reductions from Agriculture, with toxicological studies which suggest that (pure) ammonium nitrate and sulfate have only very modest toxicity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"abs1-5\">\n                    <jats:title>Study registration<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42020172116.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"abs1-6\">\n                    <jats:title>Funding<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This award was funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Public Health Research programme (NIHR award ref: NIHR129440) and is published in full in\n                      <jats:italic>Public Health Research<\/jats:italic>\n                      ; Vol. 14, No. 3. See the NIHR Funding and Awards website for further award information.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3310\/gjsr2325","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,25]],"date-time":"2025-03-25T10:47:47Z","timestamp":1742899667000},"page":"1-120","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3310\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Impact of local and national policies to reduce agriculture-related air pollution through improving diet and farm management: the AMPHoRA mixed methods study"],"prefix":"10.3310","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2428-8320","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Stefan","family":"Reis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Midlothian, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-9645-8001","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rachel","family":"Beck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Midlothian, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0870-1955","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ed","family":"Carnell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Midlothian, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9283-6467","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ulrike","family":"Dragosits","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Midlothian, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5850-6715","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rosemary","family":"Green","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Population Health, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9732-9595","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mike","family":"Holland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ecometrics Research and Consulting, Reading, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4284-3650","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Megan","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mind the Gap Research and Training, Creetown, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1732-862X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Scott","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mind the Gap Research and Training, Creetown, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2251-2643","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alison","family":"McCann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Midlothian, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7078-597X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mark","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen\u2019s Medical Research institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0304-639X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"James","family":"Milner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Environments and Society, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8680-6843","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ai","family":"Milojevic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Environments and Society, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4594-3606","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Tom","family":"Misselbrook","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rothamsted Research, Hertfordshire, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-1219-2683","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Angelica","family":"Orsi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Midlothian, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6679-4702","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Silvia","family":"Pastorino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Environments and Society, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6553-3084","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jennifer","family":"Raftis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen\u2019s Medical Research institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2825-3419","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Anoop","family":"SV Shah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Non-Communicable Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7741-9377","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Massimo","family":"Vieno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Midlothian, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6485-453X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Ryan","family":"Wereski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen\u2019s Medical Research institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"6221","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref1-bib1","volume-title":"Clean Air Strategy 2019, PB14554.","author":"Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs","year":"2019"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref2-bib2","volume-title":"Code of Good Agricultural Practice (COGAP) for Reducing Ammonia Emissions, PB14506","author":"Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs","year":"2018"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref3-bib3","volume-title":"EAT-Lancet Commission Summary Report","author":"EAT-Lancet Commision","year":"2019"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref4-bib4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4146","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1523119113","article-title":"Analysis and valuation of the health and climate change cobenefits of dietary change","volume":"113","author":"Springmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci USA"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref5-bib5","volume-title":"Review of Interventions to Improve Outdoor Air Quality and Public Health: Principal Interventions for Local Authorities. GW-1335","author":"Public Health England","year":"2019"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref6-bib6","volume-title":"About the AMPHoRA Project","author":"UK Centre for Ecology & Hydrology"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref7-bib7","volume-title":"The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom","author":"Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants","year":"2010"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref8-bib8","volume-title":"Mitigation of United Kingdom PM2.5 Concentrations. PB14161","author":"AIR QUALITY EXPERT GROUP","year":"2013"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref9-bib9","volume-title":"Pollutant Information: Ammonia","author":"National Atmospheric Emission Inventory for the UK"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref10-bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1163\/18760104-01604003","article-title":"Natura 2000 and the regulation of agricultural ammonia emissions","volume":"16","author":"Anker","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Eur Environ Plan Law"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref11-bib11","volume-title":"Scientific Analysis of the Status of Designated Natura 2000 Areas and the Protection of Nitrogen-Sensitive Species and Habitats Dutch Contribution (Report 2880)","author":"Schmidt","year":"2018"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref12-bib12","volume-title":"Comparison of Ammonia Regulation in Germany, the Netherlands and Denmark: Legal Framework. IFRO Report No. 276","author":"Anker","year":"2018"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref13-bib13","volume-title":"Task Force on Reactive Nitrogen (TFRN) under the Working Group on Strategies and Review of the UNECE Air Convention","author":"CLRTAP"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref14-bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(15)00195-6","article-title":"Changes in health in England, with analysis by English regions and areas of deprivation, 1990\u20132013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013","volume":"386","author":"Newton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref15-bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1093\/pubmed\/fdr033","article-title":"The economic burden of ill health due to diet, physical inactivity, smoking, alcohol and obesity in the UK: an update to 2006\u20137 NHS costs","volume":"33","author":"Scarborough","year":"2011","journal-title":"J Public Health (Oxf)"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref16-bib16","volume-title":"2017 Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Final Figures \u2013 Statistical Release","author":"Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, UK Government","year":"2019"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref17-bib17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s10584-015-1329-y","article-title":"The potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the UK through healthy and realistic dietary change","volume":"129","author":"Green","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clim Change"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref18-bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e007364","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2014-007364","article-title":"Health effects of adopting low greenhouse gas emission diets in the UK","volume":"5","author":"Milner","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref19-bib19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.3945\/an.117.016691","article-title":"Dietary strategies to reduce environmental impact: a critical review of the evidence base","volume":"8","author":"Ridoutt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv Nutr"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref20-bib20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gloenvcha.2014.02.004","article-title":"Food choices, health and environment: effects of cutting Europe\u2019s meat and dairy intake","volume":"26","author":"Westhoek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Global Environ Change"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref21-bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-16-265-2016","article-title":"The sensitivities of emissions reductions for the mitigation of UK PM2.5","volume":"16","author":"Vieno","year":"2016","journal-title":"Atmos Chem Phys"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref22-bib22","volume-title":"Inventory of Ammonia Emissions from UK Agriculture 2019","author":"Misselbrook TH, Gilhespy SL","year":"2021"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref23-bib23","volume-title":"Options for Ammonia Mitigation: Guidance from the UNECE Task Force on Reactive Nitrogen","author":"Bittman","year":"2014"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref24-bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1017\/sus.2023.9","article-title":"The future of meat and dairy consumption in the UK: exploring different policy scenarios to meet net zero targets and improve population health","volume":"6","author":"Pastorino","year":"2023","journal-title":"Global Sustain"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref25-bib25","volume-title":"Sixth Carbon Budget","author":"Climate Change Committee","year":"2020"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref26-bib26","volume-title":"Food, Land and Greenhouse Gases. The Effect of Changes in UK Good Consumption on Land Requirements and Greenhouse Gas Emissions","author":"Audsley","year":"2010"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref27-bib27","volume-title":"Family Food 2018\/19: About Family Food","author":"Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs","year":"2020"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref28-bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1002\/for.3980020104","article-title":"ARIMA model building and the time series analysis approach to forecasting","volume":"2","author":"Newbold","year":"1983","journal-title":"J Forecast"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref29-bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2016","DOI":"10.1002\/pa.2016","article-title":"Climate variability and its impacts on agriculture production and future prediction using autoregressive integrated moving average method (ARIMA)","volume":"20","author":"Praveen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Public Affair"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref30-bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsx.2020.07.042","article-title":"ARIMA modelling and forecasting of COVID-19 in top five affected countries","volume":"14","author":"Sahai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab Syndr"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref31-bib31","volume-title":"De echte prijs van; The TAPP Coalition (True Animal Protein Prices) Has Provided an English Translation of the Report","author":"Ce Delft","year":"2018"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref32-bib32","volume-title":"Increasing Fruit and Vegetable Consumption to Reduce the Risk of Noncommunicable Diseases","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2014"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref33-bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-017-4497-z","article-title":"Policy lessons from health taxes: a systematic review of empirical studies","volume":"17","author":"Wright","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref34-bib34","volume-title":"Estimating Food and Drink Elasticities","author":"Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs","year":"2011"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref35-bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.appet.2018.02.030","article-title":"If you build it, will they eat it? Consumer preferences for plant-based and cultured meat burgers","volume":"125","author":"Slade","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appetite"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref36-bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101931","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodpol.2020.101931","article-title":"Consumer preferences for farm-raised meat, lab-grown meat, and plant-based meat alternatives: does information or brand matter?","volume":"95","author":"Van Loo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Pol"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref37-bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2019.04.003","article-title":"Fat tax or thin subsidy? How price increases and decreases affect the energy and nutrient content of food and beverage purchases in Great Britain","volume":"230","author":"Cornelsen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soc Sci Med"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref38-bib38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaq0216","article-title":"Reducing food\u2019s environmental impacts through producers and consumers","volume":"360","author":"Poore","year":"2018","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref39-bib39","volume-title":"The British Survey of Fertiliser Practice: Fertiliser Use on Farm Crops for Crop Year 2019","author":"Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs","year":"2020"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref40-bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0269-7491(98)80033-X","article-title":"Modelling the spatial distribution of agricultural ammonia emissions in the UK","volume":"102","author":"Dragosits","year":"1998","journal-title":"Environ Pollut"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref41-bib41","volume-title":"Land Cover Map 2015 (1km Percentage Target Class, GB). NERC Environmental Information Data Centre. Dataset","author":"Rowland"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref42-bib42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8435","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-14-8435-2014","article-title":"The role of long-range transport and domestic emissions in determining atmospheric secondary inorganic particle concentrations across the UK","volume":"14","author":"Vieno","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos Chem Phys"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref43-bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7825","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-12-7825-2012","article-title":"The EMEP MSC-W chemical transport model: technical description","volume":"12","author":"Simpson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Atmos Chem Phys"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref44-bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E128","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(22)00310-2","article-title":"Impact on mortality of pathways to net zero greenhouse gas emissions in England and Wales: a multisectoral modelling study","volume":"7","author":"Milner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Lancet Planet Health"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref45-bib45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2023.166109","article-title":"School building energy efficiency and NO2 related risk of childhood asthma in England and Wales: modelling study","volume":"901","author":"Karakas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref46-bib46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqab076","article-title":"Pathways to \u20185-a-day\u2019: modeling the health impacts and environmental footprints of meeting the target for fruit and vegetable intake in the United Kingdom","volume":"114","author":"Eustachio Colombo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref47-bib47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.57.3.200","article-title":"Life table methods for quantitative impact assessments in chronic mortality","volume":"57","author":"Miller","year":"2003","journal-title":"J Epidemiol Community Health"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref48-bib48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30925-9","article-title":"Global burden of 369 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories, 1990\u20132019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019","volume":"396","author":"GBD 2019 Diseases and Injuries Collaborators","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref49-bib49","volume-title":"Socioeconomic Inequalities in Avoidable Mortality in England: 2019","author":"Office for National Statistics","year":"2021"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref50-bib50","volume-title":"Socioeconomic Inequalities in Avoidable Mortality in Wales: 2019","author":"Office for National Statistics","year":"2021"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref51-bib51","volume-title":"Socioeconomic Inequalities in Avoidable Mortality in the UK: 2019","author":"Office for National Statistics","year":"2021"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref52-bib52","volume-title":"Avoidable Mortality 2019","author":"National Records of Scotland","year":"2020"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref53-bib53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e007298","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2014-007298","article-title":"Health effects of home energy efficiency interventions in England: a modelling study","volume":"5","author":"Hamilton","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref54-bib54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1473","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)61345-8","article-title":"Effects of smoking and solid-fuel use on COPD, lung cancer, and tuberculosis in China: a time-based, multiple risk factor, modelling study","volume":"372","author":"Lin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref55-bib55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehr049","article-title":"Can dietary changes rapidly decrease cardiovascular mortality rates?","volume":"32","author":"Capewell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur Heart J"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref56-bib56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1374","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwm226","article-title":"Impact of energy intake, physical activity, and population-wide weight loss on cardiovascular disease and diabetes mortality in Cuba, 1980\u20132005","volume":"166","author":"Franco","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref57-bib57","first-page":"193","article-title":"Time-lag estimate between dietary intake and breast cancer mortality in Japan","volume":"16","author":"Harashima","year":"2007","journal-title":"Asia Pac J Clin Nutr"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref58-bib58","first-page":"223","article-title":"Time-lag effects of dietary fiber and fat intake ratio on Japanese colon cancer mortality","volume":"9","author":"Tsuji","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biomed Environ Sci"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref59-bib59","volume-title":"Cost-Effectiveness of Environmental Policies","author":"G\u00f6rlach","year":"2005"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref60-bib60","volume-title":"Cost-Benefit Analysis and the Environment: Further Developments and Policy Use","author":"The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development","year":"2018"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref61-bib61","volume-title":"Multi-Criteria Analysis: A Manual","author":"Department for Communities and Local Government: London","year":"2009"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref62-bib62","volume-title":"Air Quality Damage Cost Update 2023: FINAL Report: Report for Defra, ECM_61369)","author":"Ricardo","year":"2023"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref63-bib63","volume-title":"Cancer Survival Rates","author":"Nuffield Trust","year":"2023"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref64-bib64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1286","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.2016.77","article-title":"Cost of care for cancer patients in England: evidence from population based patient level data","volume":"114","author":"Laudicella","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br J Cancer"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref65-bib65","volume-title":"The Societal and Economic Costs of Preventable Cancers in the UK","author":"Frontier Economics","year":"2023"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref66-bib66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afz162","article-title":"Estimated societal costs of stroke in the UK based on a discrete event simulation","volume":"49","author":"Patel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref67-bib67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2012.03698.x","article-title":"Estimating the current and future costs of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes in the UK, including direct health costs and indirect societal and productivity costs","volume":"29","author":"Hex","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabet Med"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref68-bib68","volume-title":"European Cardiovascular Disease Statistics 2017 Edition","author":"European Heart Network","year":"2017"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref69-bib69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.08-2192","article-title":"Chronic bronchitis, COPD, and lung function in farmers: the role of biological agents","volume":"136","author":"Eduard","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref70-bib70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105167","article-title":"Source apportionment of primary and secondary PM2.5: associations with pediatric respiratory disease emergency department visits in the U.S. State of Georgia","volume":"133","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ Int"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref71-bib71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1097\/EDE.0000000000000368","article-title":"Ambient ammonia exposures in an agricultural community and pediatric asthma morbidity","volume":"26","author":"Loftus","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epidemiology"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref72-bib72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113651","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2020.113651","article-title":"Proximity to livestock farms and exposure to livestock-related particulate matter are associated with lower probability of medication dispensing for obstructive airway diseases","volume":"231","author":"Post","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int J Hyg Environ Health"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref73-bib73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1136\/oemed-2013-101485","article-title":"Air pollution from livestock farms, and asthma, allergic rhinitis and COPD among neighbouring residents","volume":"71","author":"Smit","year":"2014","journal-title":"Occup Environ Med"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref74-bib74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.1307277","article-title":"Long-Term exposure to fine particulate matter: association with nonaccidental and cardiovascular mortality in the agricultural health study cohort","volume":"122","author":"Weichenthal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ Health Perspect"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref75-bib75","volume-title":"Emissions of Air Pollutants","author":"DEFRA","year":"2023"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref76-bib76","volume-title":"Air Quality Appraisal: Damage Cost Guidance","author":"DEFRA","year":"2023"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref77-bib77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2024.119923","article-title":"Health impact of policies to reduce agriculture-related air pollutants in the UK: the relative contribution of change in PM2.5 exposure and diets to morbidity and mortality","volume":"262","author":"Pastorino","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ Res"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref78-bib78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151041","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2021.151041","article-title":"The role of plant-based alternative foods in sustainable and healthy food systems: Consumption trends in the UK","volume":"807","author":"Alae-Carew","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci Total Environ"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref79-bib79","volume-title":"Trends Report 2022: Trends in Critical Load and Critical Level Exceedances in the UK. Report to Defra under Contract AQ0849, UKCEH Project 07617","author":"Rowe","year":"2022"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref80-bib80","volume-title":"Biodiversity, Ecosystem Functioning, and Human Wellbeing: An Ecological and Economic Perspective","author":"Perrings","year":"2009"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref81-bib81","volume-title":"Why Jaffa Cakes Are Cakes, Not Biscuits?","author":"Kerseys Solicitors","year":"Undated"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref82-bib82","volume-title":"Sugar Tax","author":"Institute for Government","year":"2022"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref83-bib83","volume-title":"UK Government Green Financing","author":"HM Treasury","year":"2023"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref84-bib84","volume-title":"UKCEH Equality, Diversity and Inclusion Policy","author":"UKCEH","year":"2019"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref85-bib85","volume-title":"Accelerating Behaviour Change towards Sustainable and Healthy Diets in Europe (ABC-SHEADE), LSHTM Website","author":"ISHTM"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref86-bib86","volume-title":"UKCEH Data Protection Policy","author":"UKCEH","year":"2019"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref89-bib89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1177\/0272989X11401031","article-title":"Catalogue of EQ-5D scores for the United Kingdom","volume":"31","author":"Sullivan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med Decis Making"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref90-bib90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2129","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61680-8","article-title":"Common values in assessing health outcomes from disease and injury: disability weights measurement study for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010","volume":"380","author":"Salomon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref91-bib91","volume-title":"Health Statistics and Information Systems, Software Tools, DISMOD II","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2018"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref92-bib92","volume-title":"Valuation of the Health Benefits Associated with Reductions in Air Pollution","author":"DEFRA","year":"2004"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref93-bib93","volume-title":"Transport Analysis Guidance: Data Book","author":"Department for Transport","year":"2023"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref94-bib94","volume-title":"GDP Deflators at Market Prices, and Money GDP March 2022 (Quarterly National Accounts)","author":"HM Treasury","year":"2022"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref95-bib95","volume-title":"Policy Appraisal and Health: A Guide from the Department of Health","author":"Department of Health","year":"2004"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref96-bib96","volume-title":"Methodology for Estimating \u2018Wider Societal Benefits\u2019 as the Net Productive Impacts of Treatments","author":"National Institute for Clinical and Care Excellence","year":"Undated"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref97-bib97","volume-title":"Valuing Selected Health Impacts of Chemicals","author":"European Chemicals Agency","year":"2016"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref98-bib98","volume-title":"Investing in Breath: Measuring the Economic Cost of Asthma and COPD in the UK and Identifying Ways to Reduce It through Better Diagnosis and Care. Technical Report","author":"Asthma+Lung UK","year":"2023"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref99-bib99","volume-title":"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Statistics","author":"British Lung Foundation","year":"2017"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref100-bib100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0236472","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0236472","article-title":"Resource use and direct medical costs of acute respiratory illness in the UK based on linked primary and secondary care records from 2001 to 2009","volume":"15","author":"Meier","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref101-bib101","volume-title":"Social Costs of Morbidity Impacts of Air Pollution. OECD Environment Working Papers. 2016; No. 99","author":"Hunt"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref102-bib102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeem.2003.12.005","article-title":"Parental altruism and the value of avoiding acute illness: are kids worth more than parents?","volume":"48","author":"Dickie","year":"2004","journal-title":"J Environ Econ Manage"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref103-bib103","volume-title":"Valuation of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions. Supplementary Guidance to the HM Treasury Green Book on Appraisal and Evaluation in Central Government","author":"Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy","year":"2023"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref104-bib104","volume-title":"Transport Analysis Guidance: Data Book","author":"Department for Transport.","year":"2023"},{"key":"key2026030920411700_ref105-bib105","volume-title":"The Green Book (2022)","author":"HM Treasury","year":"2022"}],"container-title":["Public Health Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/njl-admin.nihr.ac.uk\/document\/download\/2050487","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk\/sites\/journalslibrary\/files\/journal_data\/GJSR2325\/GJSR2325.xml","content-type":"text\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/njl-admin.nihr.ac.uk\/document\/download\/2050487","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T15:16:19Z","timestamp":1773069379000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk\/phr\/GJSR2325"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]},"references-count":103,"alternative-id":["10.3310\/GJSR2325"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3310\/gjsr2325","relation":{},"ISSN":["2050-439X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2050-439X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"This content has been made freely available to all.","name":"free","label":"Free to read"},{"value":"04-2020","name":"contractual_start_date","label":"contractual_start_date","group":{"name":"article_history","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"11-2023","name":"editorial_review_begun","label":"editorial review begun","group":{"name":"article_history","label":"Article History"}},{"value":"05-2025","name":"accepted_for_publication","label":"Accepted for publication","group":{"name":"article_history","label":"Article History"}}]}}