{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T07:59:36Z","timestamp":1790755176567,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"National Institute for Health and Care Research","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,1]],"date-time":"2024-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1727740800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000664","name":"Health Technology Assessment programme","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NIHR159948"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NIHR159948"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000664","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Health Technol Assess"],"abstract":"<jats:sec id=\"abs1-1\">\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Acute respiratory infections are a common reason for consultation with primary and emergency healthcare services. Identifying individuals with a bacterial infection is crucial to ensure appropriate treatment. However, it is also important to avoid overprescription of antibiotics, to prevent unnecessary side effects and antimicrobial resistance.<\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>We conducted a systematic review to summarise evidence on the diagnostic accuracy of symptoms, signs and point-of-care tests to diagnose bacterial respiratory tract infection in adults, and to diagnose two common respiratory viruses, influenza and respiratory syncytial virus.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"abs1-2\">\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The primary approach was an overview of existing systematic reviews. We conducted literature searches (22 May 2023) to identify systematic reviews of the diagnostic accuracy of point-of-care tests. Where multiple reviews were identified, we selected the most recent and comprehensive review, with the greatest overlap in scope with our review question. Methodological quality was assessed using the Risk of Bias in Systematic Reviews tool. Summary estimates of diagnostic accuracy (sensitivity, specificity or area under the curve) were extracted.<\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>Where no systematic review was identified, we searched for primary studies. We extracted sufficient data to construct a 2 \u00d7 2 table of diagnostic accuracy, to calculate sensitivity and specificity. Methodological quality was assessed using the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies version 2 tool. Where possible, meta-analyses were conducted. We used GRADE to assess the certainty of the evidence from existing reviews and new analyses.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"abs1-3\">\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We identified 23 reviews which addressed our review question; 6 were selected as the most comprehensive and similar in scope to our review protocol. These systematic reviews considered the following tests for bacterial respiratory infection: individual symptoms and signs; combinations of symptoms and signs (in clinical prediction models); clinical prediction models incorporating C-reactive protein; and biological markers related to infection (including C-reactive protein, procalcitonin and others). We also identified systematic reviews that reported the accuracy of specific tests for influenza and respiratory syncytial virus. No reviews were found that assessed the diagnostic accuracy of white cell count for bacterial respiratory infection, or multiplex tests for influenza and respiratory syncytial virus. We therefore conducted searches for primary studies, and carried out meta-analyses for these index tests.<\/jats:p>\n                    <jats:p>Overall, we found that symptoms and signs have poor diagnostic accuracy for bacterial respiratory infection (sensitivity ranging from 9.6% to 89.1%; specificity ranging from 13.4% to 95%). Accuracy of biomarkers was slightly better, particularly when combinations of biomarkers were used (sensitivity 80\u201390%, specificity 82\u201393%). The sensitivity and specificity for influenza or respiratory syncytial virus varied considerably across the different types of tests. Tests involving nucleic acid amplification techniques (either single pathogen or multiplex tests) had the highest diagnostic accuracy for influenza (sensitivity 91\u201399.8%, specificity 96.8\u201399.4%).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"abs1-4\">\n                    <jats:title>Limitations<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Most of the evidence was considered low or very low certainty when assessed with GRADE, due to imprecision in effect estimates, the potential for bias and the inclusion of participants outside the scope of this review (children, or people in hospital).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"abs1-5\">\n                    <jats:title>Future work<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Currently evidence is insufficient to support routine use of point-of-care tests in primary and emergency care. Further work must establish whether the introduction of point-of-care tests adds value, or simply increases healthcare costs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec id=\"abs1-6\">\n                    <jats:title>Funding<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This article presents independent research funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment programme as award number NIHR159948.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3310\/jlcp4570","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,9]],"date-time":"2024-02-09T09:59:27Z","timestamp":1707472767000},"page":"1-75","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3310\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Diagnostic accuracy of point-of-care tests for acute respiratory infection: a systematic review of reviews"],"prefix":"10.3310","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7997-4133","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Katie E","family":"Webster","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"NIHR Bristol Evidence Synthesis Group, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6773-5376","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Tom","family":"Parkhouse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NIHR Bristol Evidence Synthesis Group, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6682-063X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sarah","family":"Dawson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NIHR Bristol Evidence Synthesis Group, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4265-2854","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Hayley E","family":"Jones","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NIHR Bristol Evidence Synthesis Group, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8232-1769","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Emily L","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Academic Primary Care, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3012-375X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alastair D","family":"Hay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Academic Primary Care, Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, 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