{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T13:20:21Z","timestamp":1788009621342,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Physiol Res"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Smoking is the most widespread substance dependence in the world. Nicotine and some other components of the cigarette smoke cause various endocrine imbalances, and have negative effects on pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, testicular and ovarian functions. Here, we examined studies that describe the influence of smoking and smoking cessation on the male and female reproductive systems. We also focused on studies providing an account of differences in cessation success rates between men and women. In men, the most common effects associated with smoking are erectile dysfunction and decreasing spermiogram quality. Several groups have studied the effects of cigarette smoking on testosterone levels in men. However, the results have been conflicting. In women, nicotine has an anti-estrogen effect and increases the ratio of androgens to estrogens throughout life. Beside nicotine, other cigarette toxins also cause dysregulation of reproductive and hormonal system, and essentially influence the probability of a successful pregnancy not only in cases of assisted reproduction but also in healthy women. Tobacco addiction is one of the forms of addiction that are generally thought to be different for men and for women. Women are less successful than men in quitting smoking, and nicotine replacement therapy is less effective in female smokers. We also summarize recent studies that have indicated possible reasons.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.33549\/physiolres.933724","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,6]],"date-time":"2020-02-06T12:12:27Z","timestamp":1580991147000},"page":"S323-S331","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["The Influence of Smoking and Cessation on the Human Reproductive Hormonal Balance"],"prefix":"10.33549","author":[{"given":"H.","family":"JAND\u00cdKOV\u00c1","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Third Department of Medicine \u2013 Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M.","family":"DU\u0160KOV\u00c1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"L.","family":"ST\u00c1RKA","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"19169","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref0","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"AL'ABSI M: Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical responses to psychological stress and risk for smoking relapse. Int J Psychophysiol 59: 218-227, 2006.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2005.10.010"},{"key":"ref1","unstructured":"AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR REPRODUCTIVE MEDICINE: Smoking and infertility. Fertil Steril 86: 172-177, 2006."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"BARBIERI RL, SLUSS PM, POWERS RD, MCSHANE PM, VITONIS A, GINSBURG E, CRAMER DC: Association of body mass index, age, and cigarette smoking with serum testosterone levels in cycling women undergoing in vitro fertilization. Fertil Steril 83: 302-308, 2005.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2004.07.956"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"BARRETT-CONNOR E, KHAW KT: Cigarette smoking and increased endogenous estrogen levels in men. Am J Epidemiol 126: 187-192, 1987.","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/126.2.187"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"BENOWITZ NL: Pharmacology of nicotine: addiction, smoking-induced disease, and therapeutics. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 49: 57-71, 2009.","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pharmtox.48.113006.094742"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"BENOWITZ NL, LESSOV-SCHLAGGAR CN, SWAN GE, JACOB P 3RD: Female sex and oral contraceptive use accelerate nicotine metabolism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 79: 480-488, 2006.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clpt.2006.01.008"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"CARROLL ME, LYNCH WJ, ROTH ME, MORGAN AD, COSGROVE KP: Sex and estrogen influence drug abuse. Trends Pharmacol Sci 25: 273-279, 2004.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2004.03.011"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"CINAR O, DILBAZ S, TERZIOGLU F, KARAHALIL B, Y\u00dcCEL C, TURK R, TASKIN L, KOSE SK: Does cigarette smoking really have detrimental effects on outcomes of IVF? Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 174: 106-110, 2014.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejogrb.2013.12.026"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"COSGROVE KP, WANG S, KIM SJ, MCGOVERN E, NABULSI N, GAO H, LABAREE D, TAGARE HD, SULLIVAN JM, MORRIS ED: Sex differences in the brain's dopamine signature of cigarette smoking. J Neurosci 34: 16851-16855, 2014.","DOI":"10.1523\/jneurosci.3661-14.2014"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"DAI WS, GUTAI JP, KULLER LH, CAULEY JA: Cigarette smoking and serum sex hormones in men. Am J Epidemiol 128: 796-805, 1988.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a115033"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"DECHANET C, ANAHORY T, MATHIEU DAUDE JC, QUANTIN X, REYFTMANN L, HAMAMAH S, HEDON B, DECHAUD H: Effects of cigarette smoking on reproduction. Hum Reprod Update 17: 76-95, 2011.","DOI":"10.1093\/humupd\/dmq033"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DUSKOVA M, SIMUNKOVA K, HILL M, HRUSKOVICOVA H, HOSKOVCOVA P, KRALIKOVA E, STARKA L: Higher levels of salivary alpha-amylase predict failure of cessation efforts in male smokers. Physiol Res 59: 765-771, 2010.","DOI":"10.33549\/physiolres.931889"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"DU\u0160KOV\u00c1 M, SIM\u016eNKOV\u00c1 K, HILL M, VEL\u00cdKOV\u00c1 M, KUB\u00c1TOV\u00c1 J, KANCHEVA L, KAZIHNITKOV\u00c1 H, HRU\u0160KOVI\u010cOV\u00c1 H, POSP\u00cd\u0160ILOV\u00c1 H, R\u00c1CZ B, SAL\u00c1TOV\u00c1 M, CIRMANOV\u00c1 V, KR\u00c1L\u00cdKOV\u00c1 E, ST\u00c1RKA L, PA\u0158\u00cdZEK A: Chronic cigarette smoking alters circulating sex hormones and neuroactive steroids in premenopausal women. Physiol Res 61: 97-111, 2012.","DOI":"10.1515\/hmbci.2011.016"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"ENGLISH KM, PUGH PJ, PARRY H, SCUTT NE, CHANNER KS, JONES TH: Effect of cigarette smoking on levels of bioavailable testosterone in healthy men. Clin Sci (Lond) 100: 661-665, 2001.","DOI":"10.1042\/cs20010011"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"FREDERICK SL, REUS VI, GINSBERG D, HALL SM, MUNOZ RF, ELLMAN G: Cortisol and response to dexamethasone as predictors of withdrawal distress and abstinence success in smokers. Biol Psychiatry 43: 525-530, 1998.","DOI":"10.1016\/s0006-3223(97)00423-x"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"FREOUR T, MASSON D, MIRALLIE S, JEAN M, BACH K, DEJOIE T, BARRIERE P: Active smoking compromises IVF outcome and affects ovarian reserve. Reprod Biomed Online 16: 96-102, 2008.","DOI":"10.1016\/s1472-6483(10)60561-5"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"FRIEDMAN AJ, RAVNIKAR VA, BARBIERI RL: Serum steroid hormone profiles in postmenopausal smokers and nonsmokers. Fertil Steril 47: 398-401, 1987.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0015-0282(16)59044-X"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"HAKONSEN LB, ERNST A, RAMLAU-HANSEN CH: Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy and reproductive health in children: a review of epidemiological studies. Asian J Androl 16: 39-49, 2014.","DOI":"10.4103\/1008-682x.122351"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"HANKINSON O: The aryl hydrocarbon receptor complex. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 5: 307-340, 1995.","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.pa.35.040195.001515"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"HECHT S: Tobacco smoke carcinogens and lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 14: 1194-1210, 1999.","DOI":"10.1093\/jnci\/91.14.1194"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"HOLLOWAY AC, KELLENBERGER LD, PETRIK JJ: Fetal and neonatal exposure to nicotine disrupts ovarian function and fertility in adult female rats. Endocrine 30: 213-216, 2006.","DOI":"10.1385\/endo:30:2:213"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"HRU\u0160KOVI\u010cOV\u00c1 H, DU\u0160KOV\u00c1 M, \u0160IM\u016eNKOV\u00c1 K, HILL M, POSP\u00cd\u0160ILOV\u00c1 H, R\u00c1CZ B, KR\u00c1L\u00cdKOV\u00c1 E, VONDRA K, ST\u00c1RKA L: Effects of smoking cessation on hormonal levels in men. Physiol Res 62: 67-73, 2013.","DOI":"10.14712\/23362936.2014.6"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"HUGHES JR, HATSUKAMI D: Signs and symptoms of tobacco withdrawal. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43: 289-294, 1986.","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1986.01800030107013"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"JAND\u00cdKOV\u00c1 H, DU\u0160KOV\u00c1 M, \u0160IM\u016eNKOV\u00c1 K, R\u00c1CZ B, HILL M, POSP\u00cd\u0160ILOV\u00c1 H, KME\u0164OV\u00c1 A, KR\u00c1L\u00cdKOV\u00c1 E, VONDRA K, ST\u00c1RKA L: How smoking cessation influence hormonal levels in postmenopausal women? Prague Med Rep 115: 60-66, 2014.","DOI":"10.14712\/23362936.2014.6"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"KANDEL DB, UDRY JR: Prenatal maternal effects of smoking on daughters' smoking: nicotine or testosterone exposure? Am J Public Health 89: 1377-1383, 1999.","DOI":"10.2105\/ajph.89.9.1377"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KAPOOR D, JONES TH: Smoking and hormones in health and endocrine disorders. Eur J Endocrinol 152: 491-499, 2005.","DOI":"10.1530\/eje.1.01867"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"KATO I, TONIOLO P, KOENIG KL, SHORE RE, ZELENIUCH-JACQUOTTE A, AKHMEDKHANOV A, RIBOLI E: Epidemiologic correlates with menstrual cycle length in middle aged women. Eur J Epidemiol 15: 809-814, 1999.","DOI":"10.1023\/a:1007669430686"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"KIRSCHBAUM C, W\u00dcST S, STRASBURGER CJ: 'Normal' cigarette smoking increases free cortisol in habitual smokers. Life Sci 50: 435-442, 1992.","DOI":"10.1016\/0024-3205(92)90378-3"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"LESAGE MG, KEYLER DE, BURROUGHS D, PENTEL PR: Effects of pregnancy on nicotine self-administration and nicotine pharmacokinetics in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 194: 413-421, 2007.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-007-0830-z"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"LONGCOPE C, JOHNSTON CC JR: Androgen and estrogen dynamics in pre- and postmenopausal women: a comparison between smokers and nonsmokers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 67: 379-383, 1988.","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem-67-2-379"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"LYNCH WJ: Sex and ovarian hormones influence vulnerability and motivation for nicotine during adolescence in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 94: 43-50, 2009.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2009.07.004"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LYNCH WJ, SOFUOGLU M: Role of progesterone in nicotine addiction: evidence from initiation to relapse. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 18: 451-461, 2010.","DOI":"10.1037\/a0021265"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MANJER J, JOHANSSON R, LENNER P: Smoking as a determinant for plasma levels of testosterone, androstenedione, and DHEAs in postmenopausal women. Eur J Epidemiol 20: 331-337, 2005.","DOI":"10.1007\/s10654-005-0385-4"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MARTIN CA, LOGAN TK, PORTIS C, LEUKEFELD CG, LYNAM D, STATON M, BROGLI B, FLORY K, CLAYTON RR: The association of testosterone with nicotine use in young adult females. Addict Behav 26: 279-283, 2001.","DOI":"10.1016\/s0306-4603(00)00094-0"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MEEK MD, FINCH GL: Diluted mainstream cigarette smoke condensates activate estrogen receptor and aryl hydrocarbon receptor mediated gene transcription. Environ Res 80: 9-17, 1999.","DOI":"10.1006\/enrs.1998.3872"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MELDRUM DR, CASPER RF, DIEZ-JUAN A, SIMON C, DOMAR AD, FRYDMAN R: Aging and the environment affect gamete and embryo potential: can we intervene? Fertil Steril 105: 548-559, 2016.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fertnstert.2016.01.013"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MENDREK A, DINH-WILLIAMS L, BOURQUE J, POTVIN S: Sex differences and menstrual cycle phase-dependent modulation of craving for cigarette: an FMRI pilot study. Psychiatry J 2014: 723632, 2014.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/723632"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MICHNOVICZ JJ, HERSHCOPF RJ, NAGANUMA H, BRADLOW HL, FISHMAN J: Increased 2-hydroxylation of estradiol as a possible mechanism for the antiestrogenic effect on cigarette smoking. N Engl J Med 315: 1305-1309, 1986.","DOI":"10.1056\/nejm198611203152101"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"MITTLER JC, POGACH L, ERTEL NH: Effects of chronic smoking on testosterone metabolism in dogs. J Steroid Biochem 18: 759-763, 1983.","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4731(83)90256-x"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"NATALI A, MONDAINI N, LOMBARDI G, DEL POPOLO G, RIZZO M: Heavy smoking is an important risk factor for erectile dysfunction in young men. Int J Impot Res 17: 227-230, 2005.","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijir.3901275"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"NEAL MS, HUGHES EG, HOLLOWAY AC, FOSTER WG: Sidestream smoking is equally as damaging as mainstream smoking on IVF outcomes. Hum Reprod 20: 2531-2535, 2005.","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/dei080"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"O\u2019DELL LE, TORRES OV: A mechanistic hypothesis of the factors that enhance vulnerability to nicotine use in females. Neuropharmacology 76: 566-580, 2014.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2013.04.055"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"OLAYAKI LA, EDEOJA EO, JIMOH OR, GHAZAL OK, OLAWEPO A, JIMOH AG, BILIAMINU SA: Effects of cigarette smoking on urinary testosterone excretion in men. Biokemistri 20: 29-32, 2008.","DOI":"10.4314\/biokem.v20i1.56435"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"OSAWA Y, TOCHIGI B, TOCHIGI M, OHNISHI S, WATANABE Y, BULLION K, OSAWA G, NAKABAYASHI Y, YARBOROUGH C: Aromatase inhibitors in cigarette smoke, tobacco leaves and other plants. J Enzyme Inhib 4: 187-200, 1990.","DOI":"10.3109\/14756369009040741"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"PATTERSON TR, STRINGHAM JD, MEIKLE AW: Nicotine and cotinine inhibit steroidogenesis in mouse Leydig cells. Life Sci 46: 265-272, 1990.","DOI":"10.1016\/0024-3205(90)90032-m"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"PAULY JR: Gender differences in tobacco smoking dynamics and the neuropharmacological actions of nicotine. Front Biosci 13: 505-516, 2008.","DOI":"10.2741\/2696"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"PINELES BL, PARK E, SAMET JM: Systematic review and meta-analysis of miscarriage and maternal exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 179: 807-823, 2014.","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwt334"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"POGUN S, YARARBAS G: Sex differences in nicotine action. Handb Exp Pharmacol 192: 261-291, 2009.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-69248-5_10"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"QUATRTROCHI LC, VU T, TUKEY RH: The human CYP1A1 gene and induction by 3-methylchlorantrene: a region of DNA that supports AH receptor binding and promotor specific binding. J Biol Chem 269: 6949-6954, 1994.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(17)37466-5"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"RASMUSSON AM, WU R, PALIWAL P, ANDERSON GM, KRISHNAN-SARIN S: A decrease in the plasma DHEA to cortisol ratio during smoking abstinence may predict relapse: a preliminary study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 186: 473-480, 2006.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-006-0367-6"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"ROSENBERG MJ, WAUGH MS, STEVENS CM: Smoking and cycle control among oral contraceptive users. Am J Obstet Gynecol 174: 628-632, 1996.","DOI":"10.1016\/s0002-9378(96)70440-4"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"RUAN X, MUECK AO: Impact of smoking on estrogenic efficacy. Climacteric 18: 38-46, 2015.","DOI":"10.3109\/13697137.2014.929106"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"SCHNOLL RA, PATTERSON F, WILEYTO EP, TYNDALE RF, BENOWITZ N, LERMAN C: Nicotine metabolic rate predicts successful smoking cessation with transdermal nicotine: a validation study. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 92: 6-11, 2009.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2008.10.016"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"SHAARAWY M, MAHMOUD KZ: Endocrine profile and semen characteristics in male smokers. Fertil Steril 38: 255-257, 1982.","DOI":"10.1016\/s0015-0282(16)46470-8"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SOFUOGLU M, MOONEY M: Subjective responses to intravenous nicotine: greater sensitivity in women than in men. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 17: 63-69, 2009.","DOI":"10.1037\/a0015297"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"SOFUOGLU M, HERMAN AI, NADIM H, JATLOW P: Rapid nicotine clearance is associated with greater reward and heart rate increases from intravenous nicotine. Neuropsychopharmacology 37: 1509-1516, 2012.","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2011.336"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"SOWERS MF, BEEBE JL, MCCONNELL D, RANDOLPH J, JANNAUSCH M: Testosterone concentrations in women aged 25-50 years: associations with lifestyle, body composition, and ovarian status. Am J Epidemiol 153: 256-264, 2001.","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/153.3.256"},{"key":"ref57","unstructured":"ST\u00c1RKA L, HILL M, KR\u00c1L\u00cdKOV\u00c1 E: Smoking and endocrine system (in Czech). DMEV 8: 180-186, 2005."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"STAROPOLI CA, FLAWS JA, BUSH TL, MOULTON AW: Predictors of menopausal hot flashes. J Womens Health 7: 1149-1155, 1998.","DOI":"10.1089\/jwh.1998.7.1149"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"STRASSER AA, BENOWITZ NL, PINTO AG, TANG KZ, HECHT SS, CARMELLA SG, TYNDALE RF, LERMAN CE: Nicotine metabolite ratio predicts smoking topography and carcinogen biomarker level. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 20: 234-238, 2011.","DOI":"10.1158\/1055-9965.epi-10-0674"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"TANK\u00d3 LB, CHRISTIANSEN C: An update on the antiestrogenic effect of smoking: a literature review with implications for researchers and practitioners. Menopause 11: 104-109, 2004.","DOI":"10.1097\/01.gme.0000079740.18541.db"},{"key":"ref61","unstructured":"TANSAVATDI K, MCCLAIN B, HERRINGTON DM: The effects of smoking on estradiol metabolism. Minerva Ginecol 56: 105-114, 2004."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"THOMAS EJ, EDRIDGE W, WEDDELL A, MCGILL A, MCGARRIGLE HH: The impact of cigarette smoking on the plasma concentration of gonadotropins, ovarian steroids and androgens and upon the metabolism of estrogens in the human female. Hum Reprod 8: 1187-1193, 1993.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.humrep.a138226"},{"key":"ref63","unstructured":"THOMFORD PJ, MATTISON DR: The effect of cigarette smoking on female reproduction. J Ark Med Soc 82: 597-604, 1986."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"TORRES OV, NATIVIDAD LA, TEJEDA HA, VAN WEELDEN SA, O\u2019DELL LE: Female rats display dose-dependent differences to the rewarding and aversive effects of nicotine in an age-, hormone-, and sex-dependent manner. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 206: 303-312, 2009.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-009-1607-3"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"TRUMMER H, HABERMANN H, HAAS J, PUMMER K: The impact of cigarette smoking on human semen parameters and hormones. Hum Reprod 17: 1554-1559, 2002.","DOI":"10.1093\/humrep\/17.6.1554"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"WANG W, YANG X, LIANG J, LIAO M, ZHANG H, QIN X, MO L, LV W, MO Z: Cigarette smoking has a positive and independent effect on testosterone levels. Hormones (Athens) 12: 1-10, 2013.","DOI":"10.14310\/horm.2002.1445"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"WEIGERT M, HOFSTETTER G, KAIPL D, GOTTLICH H, KRISCHKER U, BICHLER K, POEHL M, FEICHTINGER W: The effect of smoking on oocyte quality and hormonal parameters of patients undergoing in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer. J Assist Reprod Genet 16: 287-293, 1999.","DOI":"10.1023\/a:1020496330424"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"WHITCOMB BW, BODACH SD, MUMFORD SL, PERKINS NJ, TREVISAN M, WACTAWSKI-WENDE J, LIU A, SCHISTERMAN EF: Ovarian function and cigarette smoking in the Biocycle study. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 24: 433-440, 2010.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3016.2010.01131.x"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"WINDHAM GC, ELKIN EP, SWAN SH, WALLER KO, FENSTER L: Cigarette smoking and effects on menstrual function. Obstet Gynecol 93: 59-65, 1999.","DOI":"10.1097\/00006250-199901000-00013"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"WINDHAM GC, MITCHELL P, ANDERSON M, LASLEY BL: Cigarette smoking and effects on hormone function in premenopausal women. Environ Health Perspect 113: 1285-1290, 2005.","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.7899"}],"container-title":["Physiological Research"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,26]],"date-time":"2021-02-26T04:21:01Z","timestamp":1614313261000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.biomed.cas.cz\/physiolres\/pdf\/2017\/66_S323.pdf"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,16]]},"references-count":71,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.33549\/physiolres.933724","relation":{},"ISSN":["1802-9973","0862-8408"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1802-9973","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0862-8408","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,16]]}}}