{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,11]],"date-time":"2026-01-11T01:15:02Z","timestamp":1768094102869,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,7]],"date-time":"2023-12-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701907200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Appl. Math. Stat."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>The unexpected emergence of novel coronavirus identified as SAR-CoV-2 virus (severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus 2) disrupted the world order to an extent that the human activities that are core to survival came almost to a halt. The COVID-19 pandemic created an insurmountable global health crisis that led to a united front among all nations to research on effective pharmaceutical measures that could stop COVID-19 proliferation. Consequently, different types of vaccines were discovered (single-dose and double-dose vaccines). However, the speed at which these vaccines were developed and approved to be administered created other challenges (vaccine skepticism and hesitancy).<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>This paper therefore tracks the transmission dynamics of COVID-19 using a non-linear deterministic system that accounts for the unwillingness of both susceptible and partially vaccinated individuals to receive either single-dose or double-dose vaccines (vaccine hesitancy). Further the model is extended to incorporate three time-dependent non-pharmaceutical and pharmaceutical intervention controls, namely preventive control, control associated with screening-management of both truly asymptomatic and symptomatic infectious individuals and control associated with vaccination of susceptible individuals with a single dose vaccine. The Pontryagin's Maximum Principle is applied to establish the optimality conditions associated with the optimal controls.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>If COVID-19 vaccines administered are imperfect and transient then there exist a parameter space where backward bifurcation occurs. Time profile projections depict that in a setting where vaccine hesitancy is present, administering single dose vaccines leads to a significant reduction of COVID-19 prevalence than when double dose vaccines are administered. Comparison of the impact of vaccine hesitancy against either single dose or double dose on COVID-19 prevalence reveals that vaccine hesitancy against single dose is more detrimental than vaccine hesitancy against a double dose vaccine. Optimal analysis results reveal that non-pharmaceutical time-dependent control significantly flattens the COVID-19 epidemic curve when compared with pharmaceutical controls. Cost-effectiveness assessment suggest that non-pharmaceutical control is the most cost-effective COVID-19 mitigation strategy that should be implemented in a setting where resources are limited.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Policy makers and medical practitioners should assess the level of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy inorder to decide on the type of vaccine (single-dose or double-dose) to administer to the population.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fams.2023.1292443","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,7]],"date-time":"2023-12-07T14:39:07Z","timestamp":1701959947000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Transmission of COVID-19 in the presence of single-dose and double-dose vaccines with hesitancy: mathematical modeling and optimal control analysis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Isaac Mwangi","family":"Wangari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Samson","family":"Olaniyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ramoshweu S.","family":"Lebelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Kazeem O.","family":"Okosun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","volume-title":"WHO COVID-19 Preparedness and Response Progress Report-1 February to 30 June 2020","year":"2020"},{"key":"B2","first-page":"198","volume-title":"Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19): Situation Report","year":"2020"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49387","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3064632","article-title":"Study on an SIHRS model of COVID-19 pandemic with impulse and time delay under media coverage","volume":"9","author":"Chang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1140\/epjp\/s13360-022-02525-w","article-title":"Numerical treatment on the new fractional-order SIDARTHE COVID-19 pandemic differential model via neural networks","volume":"137","author":"Akkilic","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur Phys J Plus"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1451","DOI":"10.3390\/math10091451","article-title":"fractional-order compartmental model of vaccination for COVID-19 with the fear factor","volume":"10","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mathematics"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105378","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rinp.2022.105378","article-title":"Modeling of COVID-19 spread with self-isolation at home and hospitalized classes","volume":"36","author":"Anggriani","year":"2022","journal-title":"Results Phys"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-020-00640-3","article-title":"mathematical model for simulating the phase-based transmissibility of a novel coronavirus","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infect Dis Poverty"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2021.100505","article-title":"Assessing the effects of non-pharmaceutical interventions on SARS-CoV-2 transmission in Belgium by means of an extended SEIQRD model and public mobility data","volume":"37","author":"Alleman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(66)92364-6","article-title":"Cultivation of viruses from a high proportion of patients with colds","volume":"1","author":"Tyrrell","year":"1966","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"B10","unstructured":"2023"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12939-022-01729-x","article-title":"Inequality in the distribution of COVID-19 vaccine: a systematic review","volume":"21","author":"Bayati","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int J Equity Health"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epidem.2021.100503","article-title":"Optimal allocation of PCR tests to minimise disease transmission through contact tracing and quarantine","volume":"37","author":"Baker","year":"2021","journal-title":"Epidemics"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30763-7","article-title":"Sch\u00e4ferhoff M, Hatchett R, Pate M, Zhao F, McDade KK. 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