{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]],"date-time":"2025-12-03T06:45:02Z","timestamp":1764744302531,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]],"date-time":"2025-12-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764720000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Blockchain"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The accelerating adoption of artificial intelligence, together with escalating incidents of identity theft, account hacking, and large-scale personal data breaches, is driving a global shift toward secure, user-centric identity management systems. Blockchain-based Decentralized Identity (DID) services, grounded in the principles of Self-Sovereign Identity (SSI), are increasingly recognized as a foundational technology for safeguarding personal data and enabling user-controlled identity management. However, existing DID research and implementations remain predominantly technology-focused, often overlooking socio-technical factors such as governance, usability, operational effectiveness, and stakeholder trust. To address this gap, this study proposes an STS-based (Socio-Technical Systems) framework to guide the practical and scalable adoption of DID services, integrating both social components (e.g., governance, sustainability, user-centric design) and technical components (e.g., decentralization, privacy preservation, interoperability, security). Using an integrative research review methodology, the framework was developed through systematic analysis of global standards, industry cases, and academic literature, and was further refined and validated through multidisciplinary expert consultation. Building on this framework, we introduce a Refined DID Service Architecture optimized for enterprise-level deployment, incorporating privacy-preserving mechanisms at the infrastructure level, consensus-based governance, and standardized UI\/UX guidelines. The proposed architecture addresses key barriers to adoption--such as interoperability gaps, regulatory inconsistencies, and limited user engagement--while ensuring scalability and compliance with global standards. This study contributes to both theory and practice by (1) framing DID as a socio-technical system, (2) providing an actionable evaluation framework for developers, regulators, and service providers, and (3) offering a globally adaptable architecture that balances technological robustness with social acceptance, thereby supporting the broader diffusion of DID services in real-world ecosystems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fbloc.2025.1696955","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]],"date-time":"2025-12-03T06:40:06Z","timestamp":1764744006000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Towards a refined architecture for socio-technical decentralized identity services"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Hwajeong","family":"Hwang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Minjung","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hyunyoung","family":"Oh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sangmi","family":"Chai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","first-page":"137","article-title":"Privacy-preserving in the context of data mining and deep learning","volume":"21","author":"Althlhi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Sci. and Netw. Secur."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1109\/mcomstd.2019.9031542","article-title":"Decentralized identity: where did it come from and where is it going?","volume":"3","author":"Avellaneda","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Stand. Mag."},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1080\/09537287.2024.2329182","article-title":"Improving operational efficiency and effectiveness through blockchain technology","volume":"35","author":"Bai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Res."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3573893","article-title":"Why blockchain: a socio-technical perspective on the motives of business consortia members to engage with blockchain technology","volume":"2","author":"Bauer","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Digit. Libr."},{"key":"B5","volume-title":"Socio-technical systems: from design methods to systems engineering","author":"Baxter","year":"2011"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.2020.1379","article-title":"Blockchain governance\u2014A new way of organizing collaborations","author":"Beck","year":"2020","journal-title":"Organ. Sci"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e15","DOI":"10.1017\/dap.2021.15","article-title":"Rethinking digital identity for post-COVID-19 societies: data privacy and human rights considerations","volume":"3","author":"Beduschi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Camb. Journals"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7637","DOI":"10.1109\/access.2023.3349095","article-title":"Self-sovereign identity for organizations: requirements for enterprise software","volume":"12","author":"Bochnia","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3860","DOI":"10.3390\/math12233860","article-title":"Scalability and security in blockchain networks: evaluation of sharding algorithms","volume":"12","author":"Bulgakov","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mathematics"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2011.07.004","article-title":"A socio-technical approach to knowledge contribution behavior: an empirical investigation of social networking sites users","volume":"32","author":"Chai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Manag."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2409.02968","article-title":"A comprehensive survey of blockchain scalability","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv Prepr"},{"key":"B63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1609\/icwsm.v16i1.19274","article-title":"A Decentralized Approach towards Responsible AI in Social Ecosystems","author":"Chu","year":"2022"},{"key":"B11","article-title":"Scientific guildelines for conducting integrative research review","author":"Cooper","year":"1982"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/IJOPM-12-2022-0877","article-title":"Blockchain adoption and operational performance: a secondary data analysis on effects and contingencies","author":"Culot","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Operations and Prod. Manag"},{"key":"B13","volume-title":"Working knowledge: how organizations manage what they know","author":"Davenport","year":"1998"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.33166\/AETiC.2020.05.002","article-title":"Decentralized identity systems: architecture, challenges, solutions and future directions","volume":"5","author":"Dib","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Emerg. Technol. Comput."},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1007\/s12063-022-00343-y","article-title":"How blockchain technology improves sustainable supply chain processes: a practical guide","volume":"16","author":"Difrancesco","year":"2023","journal-title":"Operations Manag. Res."},{"key":"B16","article-title":"Digital identity ecosystems world privacy forum","author":"Dixon","year":"2019"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-59638-5_5","article-title":"BBM: a blockchain-based model for open banking via self-sovereign identity","volume-title":"Blockchain \u2013 ICBC 2020","author":"Dong","year":"2020"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1109\/CCGrid51090.2021.00074","article-title":"A blockchain-aided self-sovereign identity framework for edge-based UAV delivery system","volume-title":"2021 IEEE\/ACM 21st international symposium on cluster, cloud and internet computing (CCGrid)","author":"Dong","year":"2021"},{"key":"B19","first-page":"1","article-title":"A blockchain-based self-sovereign identity system for KYC processes","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 6th ACM international symposium on blockchain and secure critical infrastructure (BSCI \u201924)","author":"Dong","year":"2024"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11233","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2025.3529808","article-title":"A privacy-aware task distribution architecture for UAV communications system using blockchain","volume":"12","author":"Dong","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"B21","volume-title":"Exploring decentralized digital identity an ecosystem perspective","author":"Ertresvag","year":"2024"},{"key":"B22","article-title":"EUDI wallet","year":""},{"key":"B23","article-title":"European digital identity wallet architecture and reference framework","year":""},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.23919\/ifipnetworking52078.2021.9472201","article-title":"Decentralized identifiers for peer-to-peer service discovery","author":"Farmer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Text. Io."},{"key":"B25","unstructured":"Digital identity ecosystem: unlocking new value\n          \n          \n            \n              Forum\n              W. E.\n            \n          \n          \n          2021"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1145\/3532106.3533478","article-title":"Blockchain and cryptocurrency in human computer interaction: a systematic literature review and research agenda","author":"Fr\u00f6hlich","year":"2022","journal-title":"arXiv Prepr."},{"key":"B27","volume-title":"Hype Cycle for Digital identity, 2024","year":"2024"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12599-023-00830-x","article-title":"A systematic review of identity and access management requirements in enterprises and potential contributions of self-sovereign identity","author":"Gl\u00f6ckler","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bus. and Inf. Syst. Eng"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.3389\/fbloc.2019.00017","article-title":"A decentralized digital identity Architecture","volume":"2","author":"Goodell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Identity Priv. Gov."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.70828\/ZEHC9956","article-title":"Why the world needs an open source digital wallet right now","author":"Graham","year":"2023"},{"key":"B31","article-title":"Wallet safety guid","year":"2024"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.58346\/JISIS.2024.I1.005","article-title":"Towards desiging a privacy-oriented Architecture for managing personal idenfiable information","author":"Guzm\u00e1n-Castillo","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Internet Serv. Inf. Secur. (JISIS)"},{"key":"B33","article-title":"Announcing New York Mobile ID operations","author":"Hochul","year":"2024"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.3390\/info16090801","article-title":"The blockchain trust paradox: engineered trust vs. experienced trust in decentralized systems","volume":"16","author":"Keaney","year":"2025","journal-title":"User Percept."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101839","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2023.101839","article-title":"Electronic identification (e-ID) as a socio-technical system moderating migrants\u2019 access to essential public services \u2013 the case of Finland","volume":"40","author":"Kemppainen","year":"2023","journal-title":"ELSEVIER Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-658-33306-5_19","article-title":"Electronic identification (e-ID) as a socioSelbstbestimmung, Privatheit und Datenschutz: gestaltungsoptionen f\u00fcr einen europ\u00e4ischen Weg","author":"Khayretdinova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Springer Fachmedien Wiesb. Wiesb."},{"key":"B37","first-page":"45","article-title":"A Study on Mobile driver\u2019s license based on international standards (ISO\/IEC 18013-5)","volume":"31","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Korean J. Inf. Secur."},{"key":"B38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4061","DOI":"10.3390\/s23084061","article-title":"A Study on the interoperability technology of digital identification based on WACI protocol with multiparty distributed signature","volume":"23","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2004.02.026","article-title":"Industrial ecology in the strategic sustainable development model: strategic applications of industrial ecology","volume":"12","author":"Korhonen","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1109\/tem.2019.2926471","article-title":"Blockchain-Based Identity Management: a Survey from the enterprise and ecosystem perspective","volume":"67","author":"Kuperberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-93646-4_13","article-title":"Trust models for blockchain-based self-sovereign identity management: a survey and research directions","volume-title":"Advances in blockchain technology for cyber physical systems","author":"Lim","year":"2022"},{"key":"B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.2020.1379","article-title":"Blockchain governance\u2014a new way of organizing collaborations?","volume":"32","author":"Lumineau","year":"2021","journal-title":"Organization Science"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosrev.2018.10.002","article-title":"A survey on essential components of a self-sovereign identity","author":"M\u00fchle","year":"2018","journal-title":"arXiv Prepr"},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14569\/ijacsa.2022.0130124","article-title":"Customer satisfaction with digital wallet services: an analysis of security factors","volume":"13","author":"Muhtasim","year":"2022","journal-title":"(IJACSA) Int. J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Appl."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2023.102725","article-title":"Blockchain for sustainability: a systematic literature review","author":"Mulligan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Telecommun. Policy"},{"key":"B45","unstructured":"EUDI wallet A wallet full of loopholes\n          \n          \n          2024"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60928","DOI":"10.1109\/access.2024.3394537","article-title":"Design aspects of decentralized identifiers and self-sovereign identity systems","volume":"12","author":"Nicolae","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"B47","volume-title":"What are socio-technical systems?","author":"Norman","year":"2016"},{"key":"B48","article-title":"Advanced trusted environment: OMTP TR1 v1.1","volume-title":"Open Mobile terminals platform","year":"2009"},{"key":"B49","unstructured":"Mobile ID surpasses 4 million users electronic signature function to be added next year\n          \n          \n          2024"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/fi13030062","article-title":"Blockchain based decentralized applications: Technology review and development guidelines","author":"Pop","year":"2020","journal-title":"arXiv Prepr"},{"key":"B51","volume-title":"Self-sovereign identity","author":"Preukschat","year":"2022"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"eaae019","DOI":"10.1093\/ijlit\/eaae019","article-title":"Digital identity: an approach to its nature, concept, and functionalities","volume":"32","author":"Robels-Carrillo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Law Inf. Technol."},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16151","DOI":"10.1109\/access.2024.3357940","article-title":"A taxonomy of challenges for self-sovereign identity systems","volume":"12","author":"Satybaldy","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.is.2022.102090","article-title":"Defining blockchain governance principles: a comprehensive framework","author":"Schletz","year":"2021","journal-title":"arXiv Prepr"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.giq.2022.101759","article-title":"Blockchain for public service operational efficiency: a case study","volume":"40","author":"Shahaab","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gov. Inf. Q."},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TPS-ISA48467.2019.00033","article-title":"User acceptance of usable blockchain-based research data sharing system: an extended TAM based study","author":"Shrestha","year":"2019","journal-title":"arXiv Prepr"},{"key":"B65","unstructured":"Principles of SSI, Version 3\n          \n          \n          2020"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4848","DOI":"10.3390\/su17114848","article-title":"Blockchain for sustainable development: a systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Thanasi-Bo\u00e7e","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"B58","unstructured":"Decentralized identifiers (DIDs) v1.0\n          \n          \n          2022"},{"key":"B59","unstructured":"ID4D\n          \n          \n          2024"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100700","DOI":"10.1002\/joom.70006","article-title":"The impact of blockchain-enabled smart contracts on operational efficiency","volume":"71","author":"Xiong","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Operations Manag."},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114080","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3322605","article-title":"IDs v1.0and Mariusz Nowlf-Sovereign identities","volume":"11","author":"Yildiz","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Blockchain"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fbloc.2025.1696955\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]],"date-time":"2025-12-03T06:40:14Z","timestamp":1764744014000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fbloc.2025.1696955\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]]},"references-count":65,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fbloc.2025.1696955"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fbloc.2025.1696955","relation":{},"ISSN":["2624-7852"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2624-7852","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,3]]},"article-number":"1696955"}}