{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T16:11:53Z","timestamp":1772554313279,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]],"date-time":"2025-01-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1737936000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Comput. Sci."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>Gesture-based interactions provide control over a system without the need for physical contact. Mid-air haptic technology allows a user to not visually engage with the interface while receiving system information and is readily manipulable, which has positive implications for automotive environments. It is important, however, that the user still feels a sense of agency, which here refers to perceiving system changes as caused by their gesture.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>In the current study, 36 participants engaged in an experimental time perception task with an automotive-themed infotainment menu, serving as an implicit quantitative measure of agency. This was supplemented with additional self-reported measures. They selected different icons via gesture poses, with sensory feedback either visually or haptically. In addition, (sensory) feedback was also the same for each icon, arbitrarily different or carried semantic information.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Mid-air haptics increased agency compared to visual, and this did not vary as a function of feedback meaning. Agency was also associated with general measures of trust and usability.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Our findings demonstrate positive implications for mid-air haptics in automotive contexts and highlight the general importance of user agency.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/fcomp.2025.1511928","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]],"date-time":"2025-01-27T06:49:20Z","timestamp":1737960560000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Sense of agency in gesture-based interactions: modulated by sensory modality but not feedback meaning"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"George","family":"Evangelou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Orestis","family":"Georgiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Eddie","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"James W.","family":"Moore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1795","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-021-06087-8","article-title":"Studying the sense of Agency in the Absence of motor movement: an investigation into temporal binding of tactile sensations and auditory effects","volume":"239","author":"Antusch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-82154-y","article-title":"Modified sensory feedback enhances the sense of agency during continuous body movements in virtual reality","volume":"11","author":"Aoyagi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref3","first-page":"20","article-title":"Touch-less control coming to Cars","volume":"21","author":"Ashley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Automot. Eng."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2018.00137","article-title":"Action choice and outcome congruency independently affect intentional binding and feeling of control judgments","volume":"12","author":"Barlas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1037\/cns0000062","article-title":"Identity-specific predictions and implicit measures of agency","volume":"2","author":"Bednark","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychol. Conscious. Theory Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref6","first-page":"3","article-title":"Data transmission latency and sense of control","volume-title":"Lecture notes in computer science (including subseries lecture notes in artificial intelligence and lecture notes in bioinformatics) 8019 LNAI (PART 1)","author":"Berberian","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/S0959-4388(03)00043-6","article-title":"Self-awareness and action","volume":"13","author":"Blakemore","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Nuerobiol."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1145\/3409251.3411722","article-title":"Ultrahapticons: \u2018Haptifying\u2019 drivers\u2019 mental models to transform automotive mid-air haptic gesture infotainment interfaces","volume-title":"12th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications","author":"Brown","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref9","first-page":"119","article-title":"Augmenting automotive gesture infotainment interfaces through mid-air haptic icon design","volume-title":"Ultrasound Mid-Air Haptics for Touchless Interfaces. Human\u2013Computer Interaction","author":"Brown","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref10","first-page":"505","article-title":"UltraHaptics: multi-point mid-air haptic feedback for touch surfaces","author":"Carter","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-018-5461-6","article-title":"I just lost it! Fear and anger reduce the sense of agency: a study using intentional binding","volume":"237","author":"Christensen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/2207676.2208350","article-title":"I did that! Measuring users\u2019 experience of agency in their own actions","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2012 ACM Annual Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems - CHI \u201812, 2025","author":"Coyle","year":"2012"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-009-1969-0","article-title":"Voluntary action and causality in temporal binding","volume":"199","author":"Cravo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0161156","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0161156","article-title":"The sense of agency is more sensitive to manipulations of outcome than movement-related feedback irrespective of sensory modality","volume":"11","author":"David","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e110118","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0110118","article-title":"Do implicit and explicit measures of the sense of agency measure the same thing?","volume":"9","author":"Dewey","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2007.07.021","article-title":"Who is causing what? The sense of agency is relational and efferent-triggered","volume":"107","author":"Engbert","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2023.3274304","article-title":"Using virtual objects with hand-tracking: the effects of visual congruence and mid-air haptics on sense of agency","volume":"16","author":"Evangelou","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Hapt."},{"key":"ref18","article-title":"Mid-air haptic congruence with virtual objects modulates the implicit sense of agency","author":"Evangelou","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref19","first-page":"727","article-title":"I feel it in my fingers! Sense of agency with mid-air haptics","author":"Evangelou","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1155\/2008\/425267","article-title":"Effect of distorted visual feedback on the sense of agency","volume":"19","author":"Farrer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-04043-6","article-title":"Ultrasound mid-air haptics for touchless interfaces","volume-title":"Human\u2013computer interaction series","author":"Georgiou","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"774","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720818824253","article-title":"Evaluation of gesture-based in-vehicle interaction: user experience and the potential to reduce driver distraction","volume":"61","author":"Graichen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Fact."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2017.14","article-title":"Sense of agency in the human brain","volume":"18","author":"Haggard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1038\/nn827","article-title":"Voluntary action and conscious awareness","volume":"5","author":"Haggard","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1145\/3239060.3239089","article-title":"Exploring the use of mid-air ultrasonic feedback to enhance automotive user interfaces","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications","author":"Harrington","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/0747-5632(87)90010-0","article-title":"Assessing computer anxiety: development and validation of the computer anxiety rating scale","volume":"3","author":"Heinssen","year":"1987","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref27","first-page":"1","article-title":"To feel or not to feel: the role of affect in human\u2013computer interaction","volume-title":"Int. J. Hum. Comput. Stud.","author":"Hudlicka","year":"2003"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2018.11.005","article-title":"Intentional binding coincides with explicit sense of agency","volume":"67","author":"Imaizumi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1297","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720819831814","article-title":"Stimulus-response and response-effect compatibility with touchless gestures and moving action effects","volume":"61","author":"Janczyk","year":"2019","journal-title":"Hum. Fact."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327566IJCE0401_04","article-title":"Foundations for an empirically determined scale of trust in automated systems","volume":"4","author":"Jian","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Cogn. Ergon."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2020.103004","article-title":"Sense of agency: sensorimotor signals and social context are differentially weighed at implicit and explicit levels","volume":"84","author":"Lafleur","year":"2020","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00643","article-title":"The experience of agency in human-computer interactions: a review","volume":"8","author":"Limerick","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref33","first-page":"3967","article-title":"Empirical evidence for a diminished sense of agency in speech interfaces","author":"Limerick","year":"2015"},{"key":"ref34","first-page":"351","article-title":"Perceptual design of haptic icons","author":"Maclean","year":"2003"},{"key":"ref35","first-page":"2426","article-title":"Agency in mid-air Interfaces","volume-title":"Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems \u2013 Proceedings","author":"Martinez","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref36","first-page":"262","volume-title":"Cogn. Tech. Work","author":"McCarthy","year":"2005"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2011.08.010","article-title":"Sense of agency in health and disease: a review of cue integration approaches","volume":"21","author":"Moore","year":"2012","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2008.11.006","article-title":"Feelings of control: contingency determines experience of action","volume":"110","author":"Moore","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2011.12.002","article-title":"Intentional binding and the sense of agency: a review","volume":"21","author":"Moore","year":"2012","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2503","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2010.0404","article-title":"Disrupting the experience of control in the human brain: pre-supplementary motor area contributes to the sense of agency","volume":"277","author":"Moore","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2009.05.004","article-title":"Modulating the sense of agency with external cues","volume":"18","author":"Moore","year":"2009","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref42","volume-title":"Overview of the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration\u2019s driver distraction program","year":"2020"},{"key":"ref43","first-page":"31","article-title":"User-Centered System Design: New Perspectives on Human-computer Interaction","volume-title":"Cognitive Engineering, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale","author":"Norman","year":"1986"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2442106.2442111","article-title":"On the naturalness of touchless","volume":"20","author":"O\u2019Hara","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Comput. Hum. Interact."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2368","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2014.2337331","article-title":"Hand gesture recognition in real time for automotive interfaces: a multimodal vision-based approach and evaluations","volume":"15","author":"Ohn-Bar","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref46","first-page":"1","article-title":"Hand gestures to control infotainment equipment in Cars","author":"Parada-Loira","year":"2014"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1177\/1094670514539730","article-title":"An updated and streamlined technology readiness index","volume":"18","author":"Parasuraman","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Serv. Res."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-017-1479-2","article-title":"Intentional binding of visual effects","volume":"80","author":"Ruess","year":"2018","journal-title":"Atten. Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"ref49","volume-title":"Designing the user Interface: strategies for effective human-computer interaction","author":"Schneiderman","year":"2004"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.9781\/ijimai.2017.09.001","article-title":"Design and evaluation of a short version of the user experience questionnaire (UEQ-S)","volume":"4","author":"Schrepp","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Interact. Multim. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1145\/3122986.3123011","article-title":"Novel multimodal feedback techniques for in-Car mid-air gesture interaction","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications","author":"Shakeri","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3239060.3239081","article-title":"May the force be with you: ultrasound haptic feedback for mid-air gesture interaction in Cars","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications","author":"Shakeri","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2016.03.003","article-title":"Difficult action decisions reduce the sense of agency: a study using the Eriksen flanker task","volume":"166","author":"Sidarus","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.54941\/ahfe100930","article-title":"Ultrasound feedback for mid-air gesture interaction in vibrating environment","author":"Spakov","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-60441-1_38","article-title":"The benefit of touchless gesture control: an empirical evaluation of commercial vehicle-related use cases","volume":"597","author":"Stecher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1145\/3131726.3131747","article-title":"Eyes-free in-vehicle gesture controls: auditory-only displays reduced visual distraction and workload","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications Adjunct","author":"Sterkenburg","year":"2017"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2007.03.010","article-title":"Beyond the comparator model: a multifactorial two-step account of agency","volume":"17","author":"Synofzik","year":"2008","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00127","article-title":"The experience of agency: an interplay between prediction and Postdiction","volume":"4","author":"Synofzik","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref59","first-page":"224","article-title":"Novel in-vehicle gesture interactions: design and evaluation of auditory displays and menu generation interfaces","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces and Interactive Vehicular Applications","author":"Tabbarah","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref60","first-page":"27","article-title":"The impact of latency on perceptual judgments and motor performance in closed-loop interaction in virtual reality","author":"Waltemate","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.54.7.480","article-title":"Apparent mental causation: sources of the experience of will","volume":"54","author":"Wegner","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2015.06.004","article-title":"The influence of action-outcome delay and arousal on sense of agency and the intentional binding effect","volume":"36","author":"Wen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Conscious. Cogn."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-019-00403-y","article-title":"How latency, action modality and display modality influence the sense of agency: a virtual reality study","volume":"24","author":"Winkler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Virt. Real."},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1145\/1978942.1978963","article-title":"The aligned rank transform for nonparametric factorial analyses using only Anova procedures","volume-title":"Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems","author":"Wobbrock","year":"2011"},{"key":"ref65","first-page":"1","article-title":"Designing mid-air haptic gesture controlled user interfaces for Cars","author":"Young","year":"2020"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Computer Science"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcomp.2025.1511928\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]],"date-time":"2025-01-27T06:49:31Z","timestamp":1737960571000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fcomp.2025.1511928\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]]},"references-count":65,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fcomp.2025.1511928"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fcomp.2025.1511928","relation":{},"ISSN":["2624-9898"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2624-9898","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,27]]},"article-number":"1511928"}}