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However, the reasons for the UHI are complex and involve multiple factors still understudied. Air pollution is one of them. This work investigates the link between particulate matter \u22642.5 \u03bcm (PM<jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub>) and air temperature by convergent cross-mapping (CCM), a statistical method to infer causation in dynamic non-linear systems. A positive correlation between the concentration of fine particulate matter and urban temperature is observed. The causal relationship between PM<jats:sub>2.5<\/jats:sub> and temperature is confirmed in the most urbanized areas of the study site (Quito, Ecuador). The results show that (i) the UHI is present even in the most elevated capital city of the world, and (ii) air quality is an important contributor to the higher temperatures in urban than outlying areas. This study supports the hypothesis of a non-linear threshold effect of pollution concentration on urban temperature.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fdata.2025.1546223","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]],"date-time":"2025-03-14T07:09:57Z","timestamp":1741936197000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Causal effect of PM2.5 on the urban heat island"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Yves","family":"Rybarczyk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Rasa","family":"Zalakeviciute","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Marija","family":"Ereminaite","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ivana","family":"Costa-Stolz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.uclim.2022.101200","article-title":"Impact of wind speed on urban heat and pollution islands","volume":"44","author":"Abbassi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Urban Clim."},{"key":"B2","author":"Alvarez-Mendoza","year":"2018"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201211-1969OC","article-title":"Heat-related emergency hospitalizations for respiratory diseases in the Medicare population","volume":"187","author":"Anderson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. 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