{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T06:27:31Z","timestamp":1775111251187,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]],"date-time":"2023-10-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698105600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Comput. Neurosci."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Contrast Sensitivity Function (CSF) is the measure of an observer\u2019s contrast sensitivity as a function of spatial frequency. It is a sensitive measure to assess visual function in fundamental and clinical settings. Human contrast sensitivity is subserved by different spatial frequency channels. Also, it is known that amblyopes have deficits in contrast sensitivity, particularly at high spatial frequencies. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess whether the contrast sensitivity function is subtended by the same spatial frequency channels in control and amblyopic populations. To determine these spatial frequency channels, we performed an exploratory factor analysis on five datasets of contrasts sensitivity functions of amblyopic and control participants measured using either gratings or noise patches, taken from our previous studies. In the range of 0.25\u201310 c\/d, we identified two spatial frequency channels. When the CSF was measured with noise patches, the spatial frequency channels presented very similar tuning in the amblyopic eye and the fellow eye and were also similar to what was observed in controls. The only major difference was that the weight attributed to the high frequency channel was reduced by approximately 50% in the amblyopic eye. However, when the CSF was measured using gratings, the spatial frequency channels of the amblyopic eye were tuned toward lower spatial frequencies. These findings suggest that there is no mechanistic deficit for contrast sensitivity in amblyopia and that amblyopic vision may just be subjected to excessive internal noise and attenuation at higher spatial frequencies, thereby supporting the use of therapeutic strategies that involve rebalancing contrast.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/fncom.2023.1241455","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]],"date-time":"2023-10-24T13:23:49Z","timestamp":1698153829000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Spatial frequency channels depend on stimulus bandwidth in normal and amblyopic vision: an exploratory factor analysis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Alexandre","family":"Reynaud","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Seung Hyun","family":"Min","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0150942","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0150942","article-title":"What do contrast threshold equivalent noise studies actually measure? Noise vs. nonlinearity in different masking paradigms","volume":"11","author":"Baldwin","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.61.11.23","article-title":"Dichoptic spatial contrast sensitivity reflects binocular balance in Normal and Stereoanomalous subjects","volume":"61","author":"Barboni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref3","first-page":"909","article-title":"Spatial aberrations and acuity in strabismus and amblyopia","volume":"26","author":"Bedell","year":"1985","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2019.11.008","article-title":"Interocular suppressive interactions in amblyopia depend on spatial frequency","volume":"168","author":"Beylerian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1996.sp021162","article-title":"Evidence of spatial and temporal channels in the correlational structure of human spatiotemporal contrast sensitivity","volume":"490","author":"Billock","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1915","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(73)90063-1","article-title":"Stimulus specificity in the human visual system","volume":"13","author":"Blakemore","year":"1973","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1970.sp009238","article-title":"The perceived spatial frequency shift: evidence for frequency-selective neurones in the human brain","volume":"210","author":"Blakemore","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2017.07.014","article-title":"Latent binocular function in amblyopia","volume":"140","author":"Chadnova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195066579.003.0006","article-title":"Multiple spatial frequency channels","volume-title":"Spatial vision, Oxford psychology series","author":"De Valois","year":"1991"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105960","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2023.105960","article-title":"Temporal synchronization elicits enhancement of binocular vision functions","volume":"26","author":"Eisen-Enosh","year":"2023","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2798","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2006.01.028","article-title":"Second-order spatial frequency and orientation channels in human vision","volume":"46","author":"Ellemberg","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1313.1993.tb00419.x","article-title":"Statistical parametric maps in functional imaging: a general linear approach","volume":"13","author":"Friston","year":"1995","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapping"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2014.10.020","article-title":"The amblyopic deficit for 2nd order processing: generality and laterality","volume":"114","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(88)90061-2","article-title":"Interactions among spatial frequency and orientation channels adapted concurrently","volume":"28","author":"Greenlee","year":"1988","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4186","DOI":"10.1167\/jov.22.14.4186","article-title":"Assessing the interocular delay in amblyopia and its link to visual acuity","volume":"22","author":"Gurman","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00584273","article-title":"On the nature of the neural abnormality in human amblyopia; neural aberrations and neural sensitivity loss","volume":"377","author":"Hess","year":"1978","journal-title":"Pflugers Arch."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(77)90009-8","article-title":"The threshold contrast sensitivity function in strabismic amblyopia: evidence for a two type classification","volume":"17","author":"Hess","year":"1977","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5365","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.10-5468","article-title":"QCSF in clinical application: efficient characterization and classification of contrast sensitivity functions in amblyopia","volume":"51","author":"Hou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2204","DOI":"10.2307\/1939574","article-title":"Stopping rules in principal components analysis: a comparison of heuristical and statistical approaches","volume":"74","author":"Jackson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02289233","article-title":"The varimax criterion for analytic rotation in factor analysis","volume":"23","author":"Kaiser","year":"1958","journal-title":"Psychometrika"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3628","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.17-21645","article-title":"A normative data set for the clinical assessment of achromatic and chromatic contrast sensitivity using a qCSF approach","volume":"58","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2311","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(02)00193-1","article-title":"Properties of second-order spatial frequency channels","volume":"42","author":"Landy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.3758\/BRM.42.3.871","article-title":"Estimating confidence intervals for eigenvalues in exploratory factor analysis","volume":"42","author":"Larsen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17.1","DOI":"10.1167\/10.3.17","article-title":"Bayesian adaptive estimation of the contrast sensitivity function: the quick CSF method","volume":"10","author":"Lesmes","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2522","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.23-07-02522.2003","article-title":"Noise provides some new signals about the spatial vision of Amblyopes","volume":"23","author":"Levi","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2007.06.014","article-title":"The response of the amblyopic visual system to noise","volume":"47","author":"Levi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref27","volume-title":"A step-by-step approach to using SAS for factor analysis and structural equation modeling","author":"O\u2019Rourke","year":"2013"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csda.2004.06.015","article-title":"How many principal components? Stopping rules for determining the number of non-trivial axes revisited","volume":"49","author":"Peres-Neto","year":"2005","journal-title":"Comput. Stat. Data Anal."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.2352\/ISSN.2470-1173.2016.16.HVEI-112","article-title":"Discovering sensory processes using individual differences: a review and factor analytic manifesto","volume":"28","author":"Peterzell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Electron. Imaging Human Vision Electron. Imaging"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3077","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(96)00061-2","article-title":"Individual differences in contrast sensitivity functions: the lowest spatial frequency channels","volume":"36","author":"Peterzell","year":"1996","journal-title":"Clin. Vis. Sci."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(99)00187-X","article-title":"Spatial frequency tuned covariance channels for red\u2013green and luminance-modulated gratings: psychophysical data from human adults","volume":"40","author":"Peterzell","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-012-3124-6","article-title":"Properties of spatial channels underlying the detection of orientation-modulations","volume":"220","author":"Reynaud","year":"2012","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.3389\/fncom.2017.00063","article-title":"Characterization of spatial frequency channels underlying disparity sensitivity by factor analysis of population data","volume":"11","author":"Reynaud","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Comput. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.3390\/vision3040054","article-title":"An unexpected spontaneous motion-in-depth Pulfrich phenomenon in amblyopia","volume":"3","author":"Reynaud","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vision"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.08.041","article-title":"Linear model decomposition for voltage-sensitive dye imaging signals: application in awake behaving monkey","volume":"54","author":"Reynaud","year":"2011","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1167\/14.9.3","article-title":"A normative framework for the study of second-order sensitivity in vision","volume":"14","author":"Reynaud","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Vis."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(84)90210-4","article-title":"Structural modeling of spatial vision","volume":"24","author":"Sekuler","year":"1984","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1167\/10.12.10","article-title":"Multiple channels for horizontal, but only one for vertical corrugations? A new look at the stereo anisotropy","volume":"10","author":"Serrano-Pedraza","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Vision"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2005.01.015","article-title":"Spatial frequency channels derived from individual differences","volume":"45","author":"Simpson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(82)90122-5","article-title":"Low spatial-frequency channels in human vision: adaptation and masking","volume":"22","author":"Stromeyer","year":"1982","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(81)90014-6","article-title":"Discrimination at threshold: labelled detectors in human vision","volume":"21","author":"Watson","year":"1981","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2003.12.024","article-title":"Constrained linear basis sets for HRF modelling using Variational Bayes","volume":"21","author":"Woolrich","year":"2004","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.61.3.22","article-title":"Two patterns of interocular delay revealed by spontaneous motion-in-depth Pulfrich phenomenon in amblyopes with stereopsis","volume":"61","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"IOVS"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3748","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2006.06.013","article-title":"Identify mechanisms of amblyopia in Gabor orientation identification with external noise","volume":"46","author":"Xu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4190","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-24206","article-title":"Amblyopic suppression: passive attenuation, enhanced dichoptic masking by the fellow eye or reduced dichoptic masking by the amblyopic eye?","volume":"59","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fncom.2023.1241455\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]],"date-time":"2023-10-24T13:24:04Z","timestamp":1698153844000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/fncom.2023.1241455\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]]},"references-count":45,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/fncom.2023.1241455"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fncom.2023.1241455","relation":{},"ISSN":["1662-5188"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1662-5188","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]]},"article-number":"1241455"}}