{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T06:00:04Z","timestamp":1793685604366,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,9]],"date-time":"2023-01-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1673222400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Artif. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The electrocardiogram is an integral tool in the diagnosis of cardiovascular disease. Most studies on machine learning classification of electrocardiogram (ECG) diagnoses focus on processing raw signal data rather than ECG images. This presents a challenge for models in many areas of clinical practice where ECGs are printed on paper or only digital images are accessible, especially in remote and regional settings. This study aims to evaluate the accuracy of image based deep learning algorithms on 12-lead ECG diagnosis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Deep learning models using VGG architecture were trained on various 12-lead ECG datasets and evaluated for accuracy by testing on holdout test data as well as data from datasets not seen in training. Grad-CAM was utilized to depict heatmaps of diagnosis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The results demonstrated excellent AUROC, AUPRC, sensitivity and specificity on holdout test data from datasets used in training comparable to the best signal and image-based models. Detection of hidden characteristics such as gender were achieved at a high rate while Grad-CAM successfully highlight pertinent features on ECGs traditionally used by human interpreters.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This study demonstrates feasibility of image based deep learning algorithms in ECG diagnosis and identifies directions for future research in order to develop clinically applicable image based deep-learning models in ECG diagnosis.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2022.1087370","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,9]],"date-time":"2023-01-09T05:54:09Z","timestamp":1673243649000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":42,"title":["Image based deep learning in 12-lead ECG diagnosis"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Raymond","family":"Ao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e007284","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCEP.119.007284","article-title":"Age and sex estimation using artificial intelligence from standard 12-lead ECGs","volume":"2","author":"Attia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Circ. 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