{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T17:06:21Z","timestamp":1784739981213,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":54,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,8]],"date-time":"2023-12-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701993600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100005825","name":"National Institute of Food and Agriculture","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100005825","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Artif. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Governments, researchers, and developers emphasize creating \u201ctrustworthy AI,\u201d defined as AI that prevents bias, ensures data privacy, and generates reliable results that perform as expected. However, in some cases problems arise not when AI is <jats:italic>not<\/jats:italic> trustworthy, technologically, but when it <jats:italic>is<\/jats:italic>. This article focuses on such problems in the food system. AI technologies facilitate the generation of masses of data that may illuminate existing food-safety and employee-safety risks. These systems may collect incidental data that could be used, or may be designed specifically, to assess and manage risks. The predictions and knowledge generated by these data and technologies may increase company liability and expense, and discourage adoption of these predictive technologies. Such problems may extend beyond the food system to other industries. Based on interviews and literature, this article discusses vulnerabilities to liability and obstacles to technology adoption that arise, arguing that \u201ctrustworthy AI\u201d cannot be achieved through technology alone, but requires social, cultural, political, as well as technical cooperation. Implications for law and further research are also discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2023.1298604","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,8]],"date-time":"2023-12-08T11:24:20Z","timestamp":1702034660000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Safer not to know? Shaping liability law and policy to incentivize adoption of predictive AI technologies in the food system"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Carrie S.","family":"Alexander","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aaron","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Renata","family":"Ivanek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11119-023-10063-3","article-title":"Who is responsible for \u2018responsible AI'?: navigating challenges to build trust in AI agriculture and food system technology","author":"Alexander","year":"2023","journal-title":"Precision Agric"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4337\/9781847204387.00027","article-title":"\u201cChapter 16: a critical realist approach to quality in observation studies,\u201d","author":"B\u00f8llingtoft","year":"2007","journal-title":"Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods in Entrepreneurship"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1177\/2046147X19835250","article-title":"AI cheerleaders: public relations, neoliberalism and artificial intelligence","volume":"8","author":"Bourne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Public Relat. Inq."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1002\/hast.1207","article-title":"A leap of faith: is there a formula for \u201ctrustworthy\u201d AI?","volume":"51","author":"Braun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hastings Cent. Rep."},{"key":"B5","unstructured":"BuzbyJ. C.\n            FrenzenP. D.\n            RascoB.\n          Product Liability Law As It Applies to Foodborne Illness. Appendix. Product Liability and Microbial Foodborne Illness. Food and Rural Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Economic Report No. 7992001"},{"key":"B6","author":"Chagal-Feferkorn","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am I an Algorithm or a Product? When Products Liability Should Apply to Algorithmic Decision-Makers, 30 Stan. L."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.4337\/9781849804424.00012","article-title":"\u201cRationales for public policy intervention in the innovation process: a systems of innovation approach,\u201d","volume-title":"The Theory and Practice of Innovation Policy: An International Research Handbook","author":"Chaminade","year":"2010"},{"key":"B8","unstructured":"ConnallyE. H.\n          Good Food Safety Practices: Managing Risks to Reduce or Avoid Legal Liability. Food Safety and Technology, No. 32. CTAHR2009"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1145\/3306618.3314228","article-title":"\u201cThe value of trustworthy AI,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2019 AAAI\/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society","author":"Danks","year":"2019"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1093\/aler\/aht021","article-title":"Innovative negligence rules","volume":"16","author":"Dari-Mattiacci","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. Law Econ. Rev."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3910154","author":"Duff","year":"2022","journal-title":"What COVID-19 Laid Bare: Adventures in Workers' Compensation Causation. San Diego Law Review, 59, Saint Louis U. Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2022-08"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.2307\/1599572","article-title":"Limited liability and the corporation","volume":"52","author":"Easterbrook","year":"1985","journal-title":"Univ. Chicago Law Rev."},{"key":"B13","unstructured":"2023"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1093\/aepp\/ppx045","article-title":"RandD capital, randd spillovers, and productivity growth in world agriculture","volume":"40","author":"Fuglie","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1086\/699936","article-title":"AI and the economy","volume":"19","author":"Furman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Innov. Policy Econ."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1038\/s41538-023-00220-3","article-title":"Applying federated learning to combat food fraud in food supply chains","volume":"7","author":"Gavai","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPJ Sci. Food"},{"key":"B17","unstructured":"GonzalezV.\n          Google LLC. No. 21-1333, 45. United States Reports. U.S. Supreme Court2023"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2781","DOI":"10.1093\/rfs\/hhr011","article-title":"Growing out of trouble? corporate responses to liability risk","volume":"24","author":"Gormley","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rev. Financ. Stud."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.24251\/HICSS.2019.258","article-title":"\u201cBetter, nicer, clearer, fairer: a critical assessment of the movement for ethical artificial intelligence and machine learning,\u201d","volume-title":"Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences","author":"Greene","year":"2019"},{"key":"B20","volume-title":"Handbook of Emergent Methods","author":"Hesse-Biber","year":"2010"},{"key":"B21","first-page":"2","article-title":"\u201cHow agricultural and environmental economists can contribute to assuring safe food,\u201d","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Invited paper presented at the Australian Agricultural and Resource Economics Society meetings"},{"key":"B22","unstructured":"HopwoodW.\n            PaciniC.\n            YoungG.\n          Fighting discovery abuse in litigation. Journal of Forensic and Investigative Accounting, 62014"},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3102","DOI":"10.46743\/2160-3715\/2017.3163","article-title":"Cul-de-sacs and narrative data analysis \u2013 a less than straightforward journey","volume":"22","author":"James","year":"2017","journal-title":"Qual. Rep."},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23753","DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-021-05726-z","article-title":"Towards design and implementation of Industry 4.0 for food manufacturing","volume":"35","author":"Konur","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neural Comput. App."},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.203491","article-title":"A theory of legal strategy","volume":"49","author":"LoPucki","year":"2000","journal-title":"Duke Law J."},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1149\/1.2132690","author":"Lowrance","year":"1976","journal-title":"Of Acceptable Risk: Science and the Determination of Safety"},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1093\/aepp\/ppx054","article-title":"Understanding the impacts of food consumer choice and food policy outcomes","volume":"40","author":"Lusk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Appl. Econ. Perspect. Policy"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1080\/01490409609513294","article-title":"N = 1: what can be learned from the single case?","volume":"18","author":"McCormick","year":"1996","journal-title":"Leisure Sci."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"E6","DOI":"10.1017\/eds.2022.5","article-title":"Why we need to focus on developing ethical, responsible, and trustworthy artificial intelligence approaches for environmental science","volume":"1","author":"McGovern","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Data Sci."},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6305","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2020.2998584","article-title":"IoT, big data, and artificial intelligence in agriculture and food industry","volume":"9","author":"Misra","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Int. Things J."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-021-09557-8","article-title":"Ethics-based auditing to develop trustworthy AI","volume":"31","author":"M\u00f6kander","year":"2021","journal-title":"Minds Machine."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"499","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3834807","article-title":"Striking a new grand bargain: workers' compensation as a pandemic social safety net","volume":"499","author":"Moore","year":"2021","journal-title":"U. Chi. Legal F."},{"key":"B33","first-page":"1","article-title":"\u201cThe nature of the case study,\u201d","volume-title":"A Case for the Case Study","author":"Orum","year":"1991"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781526421036831710","article-title":"\u201cSnowball sampling,\u201d","author":"Parker","year":"2019","journal-title":"SAGE Research Methods Foundations"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X-59.13.6","article-title":"Risk assessment terms and definitions","volume":"59","author":"Potter","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2022.2103086","article-title":"A perspective on data sharing in digital food safety systems","author":"Qian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Critic. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.6028\/NIST.AI.100-1","author":"Raimondo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence Risk Management Framework (AI RMF 1.0), NIST AI 100-1"},{"key":"B38","unstructured":"RheeR. J.\n          Bonding Limited Liability. William & Mary Law Review2010"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2749","DOI":"10.1007\/s11948-020-00228-y","article-title":"In AI we trust: ethics, artificial intelligence, and reliability","volume":"26","author":"Ryan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Eng. Ethics"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"616","DOI":"10.1177\/1468794114550439","article-title":"Anonymising interview data: challenges and compromise in practice","volume":"15","author":"Saunders","year":"2015","journal-title":"Qual. Res."},{"key":"B41","volume-title":"Designing for Trustworthiness: Knowledge Claims and Evaluations of Interpretive Research. Interpretive research design: Concepts and processes.","author":"Schwartz-Shea","year":"2011"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhm.2012.07.008","article-title":"The impact of food safety events on the value of food-related firms: an event study approach","volume":"33","author":"Seo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Hosp. Manag."},{"key":"B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1086\/467907","article-title":"Liability and the incentive to obtain information about risk","volume":"21","author":"Shavell","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Legal Stud."},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1086\/ma.13.4623748","article-title":"What do technology shocks do?","volume":"13","author":"Shea","year":"1999","journal-title":"NBER Macroecon. Ann."},{"key":"B45","unstructured":"SimkovicM.\n          Limited Liability and the Known Unknown, 68 Duke L.J. 2752018"},{"key":"B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1017\/err.2021.52","article-title":"A sandbox approach to regulating high-risk artificial intelligence applications","volume":"13","author":"Truby","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eur. J. Risk Regul."},{"key":"B47","unstructured":"New Era of Smarter Food Safety: FDA's Blueprint for the Future2020"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.1770031","author":"Viscusi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Does Product Liability Make Us Safer? Vanderbilt Law and Economics Research Paper No. 11\u201311."},{"key":"B49","unstructured":"WagnerW. E.\n          10343054Choosing Ignorance in the Manufacture of Toxic Products, 82 Cornell L. Rev. 7731997"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1287\/isre.6.4.376","article-title":"The emergence of interpretivism in IS research","volume":"6","author":"Walsham","year":"1995","journal-title":"Inform. Syst. Res."},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1080\/10967494.2012.702595","volume":"15","author":"Worline","year":"2012"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.3917\/rips.035.0029","article-title":"Interpretive research: characteristics and criteria","volume":"15","author":"Yanow","year":"2009","journal-title":"Revue internationale de psychosociologie"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1097\/ACM.0b013e31819a8aa6","article-title":"Transforming the culture of biomedical research from compliance to trustworthiness: insights from nonmedical sectors","volume":"84","author":"Yarborough","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acad. Med."},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4135\/9781446278925","author":"Ybema","year":"2009","journal-title":"Organizational Ethnography: Studying the Complexities of Everyday Life"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frai.2023.1298604\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,8]],"date-time":"2023-12-08T11:24:32Z","timestamp":1702034672000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frai.2023.1298604\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,8]]},"references-count":54,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frai.2023.1298604"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frai.2023.1298604","relation":{},"ISSN":["2624-8212"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2624-8212","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,8]]},"article-number":"1298604"}}