{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T17:40:31Z","timestamp":1773337231095,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773273600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Artif. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study investigates how undergraduate and graduate translation students in post-secondary education engage with and evaluate Large Language Model (LLM)-generated feedback through a mixed-methods approach, analyzing acceptance rates, influencing factors, decision rationales, and perceived limitations. 78 students majoring in translation (55 undergraduates, 23 postgraduates) completed translation tasks spanning six text types and received ChatGPT-3.5-generated feedback. Participants made binary accept\/reject decisions with immediate written rationales, followed by semi-structured interviews to explore evaluative criteria and perceived deficiencies. Quantitatively, participants accepted an average of 68.2% of LLM suggestions, demonstrating receptive yet selective engagement, with no student accepting or rejecting all suggestions. Acceptance was most strongly shaped by text type, with technical and news texts receiving the highest approval and literary and tourism texts the lowest. Baseline AI attitude and proficiency further moderated engagement, as optimists accepted more suggestions than skeptics, higher-proficiency students within each academic level demonstrated greater criticality than their lower-proficiency peers, and postgraduates overall exhibited more selective evaluation than undergraduates. Qualitatively, students accepted feedback that corrected objective errors, improved fluency, or resolved uncertainty, but rejected suggestions due to cultural or contextual misunderstandings, preservation of personal style, unconvincing justifications, or risk aversion in high-stakes texts. Rejection often triggered deeper engagement, including self-revision, external verification, and dialogue with the AI. Thematic analysis revealed key deficiencies in LLM feedback, such as cultural blind spots, stylistic flattening, and contextual myopia. These findings highlight that students\u2019 engagement with LLM feedback is shaped by the interplay of task characteristics, individual dispositions, and domain expertise, underscoring the need for translator training programs to develop feedback systems that are contextually aware, stylistically adaptive, and dialogic in post-secondary translation education.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2026.1727544","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T06:48:33Z","timestamp":1773298113000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Navigating AI feedback in translation training: how text type, proficiency, and attitude shape students\u2019 acceptance behaviors"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Shiyue","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Humanities and Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Shuren University","place":["Hangzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Lou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Humanities and Foreign Languages, Zhejiang Shuren University","place":["Hangzhou, China"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2508031","DOI":"10.1080\/23311983.2025.2508031","article-title":"Artificial intelligence tools and literary translation: a comparative investigation of ChatGPT and Google translate from novice and advanced EFL student translators\u2019 perspectives","volume":"12","author":"Abdelhalim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cogent Arts Humanit."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1080\/13538322.2012.730714","article-title":"Student feedback systems in higher education: a focused literature review and environmental scan","volume":"18","author":"Alderman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Qual. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18901","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12594-2","article-title":"Exploring the impact of ChatGPT-generated feedback on technical writing skills of computing students: a blinded study","volume":"29","author":"AlGhamdi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-025-04945-2","article-title":"Factors influencing the acceptance and use of ChatGPT among English as a foreign language learners in Saudi Arabia","volume":"12","author":"Alotaibi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun."},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3579460","article-title":"Being trustworthy is not enough: how untrustworthy artificial intelligence (AI) can deceive the end-users and gain their trust","volume":"7","author":"Banovic","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref6","first-page":"248","article-title":"Navigating the complexities of AI: the critical role of interpretability and explainability in ensuring transparency and trust","volume":"6","author":"Barnes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Multidiscip. Curr. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1037\/qup0000196","article-title":"Conceptual and design thinking for thematic analysis","volume":"9","author":"Braun","year":"2022","journal-title":"Qual. Psychol."},{"key":"ref9001","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jarmac.2020.09.003","article-title":"Desirable difficulties in theory and practice","volume":"9","author":"Bjork","year":"2020","journal-title":"J Appl Res Mem Cogn."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2309.01645","article-title":"Exploring the effectiveness of ChatGPT-based feedback compared with teacher feedback and self-feedback","author":"Cao","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21582440251369204","DOI":"10.1177\/21582440251369204","article-title":"Exploring the efficacy of ChatGPT-based feedback compared with teacher feedback and self-feedback: evidence from Chinese-English translation","volume":"15","author":"Cao","year":"2025","journal-title":"SAGE Open"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6570","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2381930","article-title":"From uncertainty to tenacity: investigating user strategies and continuance intentions in AI-powered ChatGPT with uncertainty reduction theory","volume":"41","author":"Chang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2101","DOI":"10.3390\/su12052101","article-title":"The effect of structured feedback on performance: the role of attitude and perceived usefulness","volume":"12","author":"Cheah","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1619489","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2025.1619489","article-title":"A multidimensional comparison of ChatGPT, Google translate, and DeepL in Chinese tourism texts translation: fidelity, fluency, cultural sensitivity, and persuasiveness","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e47184","DOI":"10.2196\/47184","article-title":"Investigating the impact of user trust on the adoption and use of ChatGPT: survey analysis","volume":"25","author":"Choudhury","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Internet Res."},{"key":"ref14","first-page":"323","author":"Dai","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.48185\/jtls.v3i1.439","article-title":"Factors that influence translation and interpreting technology adoption by university instructors, through the lens of the technology acceptance model (TAM)","volume":"3","author":"Dianati","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Transl. Lang. Stud."},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1075\/babel.50.2.05eme","article-title":"Translation, equivalence and fidelity: a pragmatic approach","volume":"50","author":"Emery","year":"2004","journal-title":"Babel"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-023-00425-2","article-title":"AI-generated feedback on writing: insights into efficacy and ENL student preference","volume":"20","author":"Escalante","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1080\/15228053.2023.2233814","article-title":"Generative AI and ChatGPT: applications, challenges, and AI-human collaboration","volume":"25","author":"Fui-Hoon Nah","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Inf. Technol. Case Appl. Res."},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1108\/QAE-01-2023-0004","article-title":"Enhancing the assessment and the feedback in higher education","volume":"32","author":"Gomis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Qual. Assur. Educ."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2572","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.12864","article-title":"Technology acceptance model in educational context: a systematic literature review","volume":"50","author":"Grani\u0107","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8435","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-023-12146-0","article-title":"To resist it or to embrace it? Examining ChatGPT\u2019s potential to support teacher feedback in EFL writing","volume":"29","author":"Guo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1612","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13540","article-title":"Using AI-supported peer review to enhance feedback literacy: an investigation of students\u2019 revision of feedback on peers\u2019 essays","volume":"56","author":"Guo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref9002","first-page":"655","article-title":"Metacognitive processes and self-regulation in the use of automated writing evaluation programs","volume-title":"European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning","author":"Hibert","year":"2019"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3534561","article-title":"Advancing human-AI complementarity: the impact of user expertise and algorithmic tuning on joint decision making","volume":"30","author":"Inkpen","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3390\/ai6020035","article-title":"The promises and pitfalls of large language models as feedback providers: a study of prompt engineering and the quality of AI-driven feedback","volume":"6","author":"Jacobsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"AI"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2304.03245","article-title":"Large language models effectively leverage document-level context for literary translation, but critical errors persist","author":"Karpinska","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1108\/IJILT-05-2020-0090","article-title":"Understanding user perception toward artificial intelligence (AI) enabled e-learning","volume":"38","author":"Kashive","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Learn. Technol."},{"key":"ref27","first-page":"1","author":"Kumar","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref9003","author":"Kushmar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Artificial intelligence in language learning: What are we afraid of."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1177\/1362168813510384","article-title":"The interface between feedback type, L2 proficiency, and the nature of the linguistic target","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lang. Teach. Res."},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13922","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-64363-3","article-title":"An explanatory study of factors influencing engagement in AI education at the K-12 level: an extension of the classic TAM model","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"631898","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.631898","article-title":"Peer feedback in translation training: a quasi-experiment in an advanced Chinese\u2013English translation course","volume":"12","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1186\/s40561-025-00406-0","article-title":"How do generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools and large language models (LLMs) influence language learners\u2019 critical thinking in EFL education? A systematic review","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Smart Learn. Environ."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2314358","article-title":"Exploring user adoption of ChatGPT: a technology acceptance model perspective","volume":"41","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12167","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-023-12333-z","article-title":"Factors influencing students\u2019 intention to adopt and use ChatGPT in higher education: a study in the Vietnamese context","volume":"29","author":"Maheshwari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.31470\/2309-1797-2024-35-2-134-156","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in academic translation: a comparative study of large language models and Google translate","volume":"35","author":"Mohsen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psycholinguistics"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2025.100379","article-title":"Extending the technology acceptance model: the role of subjective norms, ethics, and trust in AI tool adoption among students","volume":"8","author":"Mustofa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1111\/bjet.13232","article-title":"Teachers\u2019 trust in AI-powered educational technology and a professional development program to improve it","volume":"53","author":"Nazaretsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref37","first-page":"1","author":"Prabhudesai","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2018.1428994","article-title":"Automated written corrective feedback: how well can students make use of it?","volume":"31","author":"Ranalli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1037\/a0032690","article-title":"How students create motivationally supportive learning environments for themselves: the concept of agentic engagement","volume":"105","author":"Reeve","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref40","first-page":"215","author":"Salimzadeh","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1111\/lang.12283","article-title":"Metacognitive instruction enhances the effectiveness of corrective feedback: variable effects of feedback types and linguistic targets","volume":"68","author":"Sato","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lang. Learn."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-72410-7_2","volume-title":"Explainable AI for Education: Recent Trends and Challenges","author":"Shafik","year":"2024"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1007\/s43621-025-01094-z","article-title":"The role of large language models in personalized learning: a systematic review of educational impact","volume":"6","author":"Sharma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discover Sustain."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.3233\/EFI-2004-22201","article-title":"Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects","volume":"22","author":"Shenton","year":"2004","journal-title":"Educ. Inf."},{"key":"ref9004","first-page":"1","article-title":"Leveraging LLM-based chatbots for interactional grammar feedback in L2 writing: opportunities and challenges","author":"Shin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Innov. Lang. Learn. Teach."},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e22772","DOI":"10.1002\/cae.22772","article-title":"Educational impact of Metaverse learning environment for engineering mechanics dynamics","volume":"32","author":"Sidhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ."},{"key":"ref46","first-page":"317","article-title":"Navigating the challenges and opportunities of literary translation in the age of AI: striking a balance between human expertise and machine power","volume":"8","author":"\u0160kobo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dru\u0161t. Humanist. Stud."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1080\/14790718.2015.1053891","article-title":"Metalinguistic awareness and academic achievement in a linguistically diverse school setting: a study of lower secondary pupils in Denmark","volume":"13","author":"Spellerberg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Multiling."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101894","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2024.101894","article-title":"Comparing the quality of human and ChatGPT feedback of students\u2019 writing","volume":"91","author":"Steiss","year":"2024","journal-title":"Learn. Instr."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1080\/1750399X.2025.2541486","article-title":"Adapt or adopt? Examining the efficacy of ChatGPT in providing translation feedback","volume":"19","author":"Su","year":"2025","journal-title":"Interpr. Transl. Train."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1016\/j.promfg.2018.03.137","article-title":"A review of technology acceptance and adoption models and theories","volume":"22","author":"Taherdoost","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Manuf."},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/02602938.2024.2374485","article-title":"Interacting with ChatGPT for internal feedback and factors affecting feedback quality","volume":"50","author":"Tam","year":"2025","journal-title":"Assess. Eval. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref9005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690","DOI":"10.1080\/17501229.2022.2122476","article-title":"Higher-proficiency students\u2019 engagement with and uptake of teacher and Grammarly feedback in an EFL writing course","volume":"17","author":"Thi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Innov. Lang. Learn. Teach."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30014","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-14177-8","article-title":"Deep neural architectures for Kashmiri-English machine translation","volume":"15","author":"Ul Qumar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.17398\/2340-2784.45.243","article-title":"Google translate and DeepL: breaking taboos in translator training: observational study and analysis","volume":"45","author":"Varela Salinas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ib\u00e9rica"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3476068","article-title":"How to evaluate trust in AI-assisted decision making? A survey of empirical methodologies","volume":"5","author":"Vereschak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101440","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tsc.2023.101440","article-title":"Chatgpt\u2019s capabilities in providing feedback on undergraduate students\u2019 argumentation: a case study","volume":"51","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Think. Skills Creat."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s40636-025-00334-1","article-title":"Reaffirming the importance of traditional humanities in the era of AI-enhanced translation and transcultural communication","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. Commun. Chin. Cult."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ijal.12856","article-title":"What drives university students to use ChatGPT for translation? Disciplinary and experiential influences","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Linguist."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2016.05.004","article-title":"Automated essay evaluation software in English language arts classrooms: effects on teacher feedback, student motivation, and writing quality","volume":"100","author":"Wilson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1109\/TLT.2025.3562379","article-title":"Empowering instructors with AI: evaluating the impact of an AI-driven feedback tool in learning analytics","volume":"18","author":"Xavier","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Learn. Technol."},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16969","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13457-0","article-title":"Investigating student engagement with AI-driven feedback in translation revision: a mixed-methods study","volume":"30","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1086","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-024-03543-y","article-title":"L2 writer engagement with automated written corrective feedback provided by ChatGPT: a mixed-method multiple case study","volume":"11","author":"Yan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.3390\/su17031133","article-title":"The impact of adaptive learning technologies, personalized feedback, and interactive AI tools on student engagement: the moderating role of digital literacy","volume":"17","author":"Yaseen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustainability"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"633","DOI":"10.1007\/s11251-025-09705-y","article-title":"University students\u2019 perceptions of using generative AI in translation practices","volume":"53","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Instr. Sci."},{"key":"ref64","first-page":"11712","author":"Zhang","year":"2022"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1207\/s15430421tip4102_2","article-title":"Becoming a self-regulated learner: an overview","volume":"41","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Theory Pract."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1727544\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T06:48:35Z","timestamp":1773298115000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1727544\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]]},"references-count":70,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frai.2026.1727544"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1727544","relation":{},"ISSN":["2624-8212"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2624-8212","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]]},"article-number":"1727544"}}