{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,12]],"date-time":"2026-08-12T16:06:26Z","timestamp":1786550786133,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":133,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769040000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Artif. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Rapid adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in learning has revolutionized learners\u2019 engagement but comprehension of psychological and technological drivers of successful AI-enabled learning remains scarce. This research investigates how students\u2019 perceived agency of AI, usefulness, ease of use, trust, autonomy supporting, and self-efficacy collectively impact students\u2019 self-learning behavior and motivation. Based on Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) theories, our research model predicts an integrated model of motivational and behavioral processes underlying AI adoption in learning settings.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We adopted and followed a quantitative research design with a structured questionnaire administered among 280 higher education students in Saudi Arabia. We applied Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) using SmartPLS 4 to analyze data.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Findings indicate that students\u2019 perceived agency of AI significantly predicts usefulness, ease of use, and autonomy supporting, while ease of use significantly enhances AI-enabled self-efficacy. Self-efficacy and autonomy supporting significantly impact self-learning motivation, driving self-learning behavior positively. But usefulness and trust in AI failed to influence self-efficacy directly, which reveals cultural and contextual settings.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This research adds richness to the fusion of TAM, SCT, and SDT theories in illustrating how AI\u2019s perceived autonomy and usability collectively promote self-directed learning motivation. This research also provides guidelines to educators and system designers to design AI tools that promote learner autonomous settings, usability, and confidence. Future research ought to perform longitudinal and cross-cultural validations to fine-tune theoretically.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2026.1738774","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T06:52:35Z","timestamp":1769064755000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Exploring the role of agentic AI in fostering self-efficacy, autonomy support, and self-learning motivation in higher education"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Jehad","family":"Alqurni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Educational Technologies, College of Education, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University","place":["Dammam, Saudi Arabia"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100132","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2023.100132","article-title":"Acceptance of artificial intelligence in teaching science: science teachers\u2019 perspective","volume":"4","author":"Al Darayseh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"845","DOI":"10.3390\/bs14090845","article-title":"ChatGPT in learning: assessing students\u2019 use intentions through the lens of perceived value and the influence of AI literacy","volume":"14","author":"Al-Abdullatif","year":"2024","journal-title":"Behav. Sci. (Basel)."},{"key":"ref3","first-page":"92","article-title":"Saudi Arabia\u2019s vision 2030: approaches to multicultural education and training","volume":"12","author":"Aldegether","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Innov. Creat. Chang."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18366","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3534099","article-title":"The influence of social support theory on AI acceptance: examining educational support and perceived usefulness using SEM analysis","volume":"13","author":"Aldraiweesh","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175391","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3498047","article-title":"Integrated technological approaches to academic success: mobile learning, social media, and AI in higher education","volume":"12","author":"Almogren","year":"","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e31887","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e31887","article-title":"Exploring factors influencing the acceptance of ChatGPT in higher education: a smart education perspective","volume":"10","author":"Almogren","year":"","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2023.2275141","article-title":"Predicting attitude, use, and future intentions with translation websites through the TAM framework: a multicultural study among Saudi and south Korean language learners","volume":"38","author":"Almusharraf","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Assist. Lang. Learn."},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103007","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techsoc.2025.103007","article-title":"Harnessing AI capabilities and green entrepreneurial orientation for sustainable SME performance using SEM analysis approach","volume":"22","author":"Alwakid","year":"2025","journal-title":"Technol. Soc."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1108\/NBRI-01-2014-0005","article-title":"User satisfaction with mobile websites: the impact of perceived usefulness (PU), perceived ease of use (PEOU) and trust","volume":"5","author":"Amin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nankai Bus. Rev. Int."},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1080\/02680513.2022.2102417","article-title":"Course satisfaction and perceived learning among distance learners in Malaysian research universities: the impact of motivation, self-efficacy, self-regulated learning, and instructor immediacy behaviour","volume":"39","author":"Amoozegar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Open Learn. J. Open, Distance e-Learning"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.3390\/fi17090404","article-title":"The rise of agentic AI: a review of definitions, frameworks, architectures, applications, evaluation metrics, and challenges","volume":"17","author":"Bandi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Futur. Internet"},{"key":"ref12","first-page":"2","article-title":"Social foundations of thought and action","author":"Bandura","year":"1986"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.41.3.586","article-title":"Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation","volume":"41","author":"Bandura","year":"1981","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1108\/JEIM-06-2020-0233","article-title":"Can we trust AI? An empirical investigation of trust requirements and guide to successful AI adoption","volume":"35","author":"Bedu\u00e9","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Enterp. Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref15","first-page":"1","author":"Bennett","year":"2023"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2024.100358","article-title":"Attitudes, perceptions and AI self-efficacy in K-12 education","volume":"8","author":"Bergdahl","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Educ. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1080\/03075079812331380384","article-title":"Promoting reflection in professional courses: the challenge of context","volume":"23","author":"Boud","year":"1998","journal-title":"Stud. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref18","volume-title":"Social research methods","author":"Bryman","year":"2016"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2003.10.004","article-title":"The relation of interface usability characteristics, perceived usefulness, and perceived ease of use to end-user satisfaction with enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems","volume":"20","author":"Calisir","year":"2004","journal-title":"Comput. Human Behav."},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.2147\/PRBM.S441444","article-title":"Does AI-driven technostress promote or hinder employees\u2019 artificial intelligence adoption intention? A moderated mediation model of affective reactions and technical self-efficacy","volume":"17","author":"Chang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Psychol. Res. Behav. Manag."},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021101","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.1021101","article-title":"The effectiveness of self-regulated learning (SRL) interventions on L2 learning achievement, strategy employment and self-efficacy: a meta-analytic study","volume":"13","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2025.105217","article-title":"Impact of perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of humanoid robots on students\u2019 intention to use","volume":"258","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2022.2050543","article-title":"Trust in AI and its role in the acceptance of AI technologies","volume":"39","author":"Choung","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Human\u2013Computer Interact."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.2307\/249688","article-title":"Computer self-efficacy: development of a measure and initial test","volume":"19","author":"Compeau","year":"1995","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1136\/fmch-2018-000086","article-title":"Mixed methods and survey research in family medicine and community health","volume":"7","author":"Creswell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Fam. Med. Community Health"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164008","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2025.3611367","article-title":"What shapes learners\u2019 trust in AI? A meta-analytic review of its antecedents and consequences","volume":"13","author":"Cui","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18695","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-12599-x","article-title":"Investigating AI-based academic support acceptance and its impact on students\u2019 performance in Malaysian and Pakistani higher education institutions","volume":"29","author":"Dahri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e29317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e29317","article-title":"Extended TAM based acceptance of AI-powered ChatGPT for supporting metacognitive self-regulated learning in education: a mixed-methods study","volume":"10","author":"Dahri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3991\/ijim.v19i11.54643","article-title":"Enhancing mobile learning with AI-powered chatbots: investigating ChatGPT\u2019s impact on student engagement and academic performance","volume":"19","author":"Dahri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Interact. Mob. Technol."},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2025","DOI":"10.20517\/ces.2025.07","article-title":"Decoding ChatGPT\u2019s impact on student satisfaction and performance: a multimodal machine learning and explainable AI approach","volume":"5","author":"Dahri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Complex Eng. Syst."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18241","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13539-z","article-title":"Exploring the impact of ChatGPT on teaching performance: findings from SOR theory, SEM and IPMA analysis approach","volume":"30","author":"Dahri","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.2307\/249008","article-title":"Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology","volume":"13","author":"Davis","year":"1989","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.35.8.982","article-title":"User acceptance of computer technology: a comparison of two theoretical models","volume":"35","author":"Davis","year":"1989","journal-title":"Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1080\/03075079.2014.915302","article-title":"Effective self-regulatory processes in higher education: research findings and future directions. A systematic review","volume":"41","author":"de Bruijn-Smolrs","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stud. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327965PLI1104_01","article-title":"The\" what\" and\" why\" of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior","volume":"11","author":"Deci","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychol. Inq."},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8551.2006.00500.x","article-title":"Formative versus reflective indicators in organizational measure development: a comparison and empirical illustration","volume":"17","author":"Diamantopoulos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Manag."},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e31887","article-title":"Give me a choice: the consequences of restricting choices through AI-support for perceived autonomy, motivational variables, and decision performance","author":"Faas","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv Prepr. arXiv2410.07728"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/s41979-024-00132-1","article-title":"Artificial intelligence tools usage: a structural equation modeling of undergraduates\u2019 technological readiness, self-efficacy and attitudes","volume":"8","author":"Falebita","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. STEM Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e37158","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e37158","article-title":"From literacy to learning: the sequential mediation of attitudes and enjoyment in AI-assisted EFL education","volume":"10","author":"Fan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1108\/02635570610666403","article-title":"Consumer trust, perceived security and privacy policy: three basic elements of loyalty to a web site","volume":"106","author":"Flavi\u00e1n","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ind. Manag. Data Syst."},{"key":"ref41","volume-title":"Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics","author":"Fornell","year":"1981"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1177\/001440299406000403","article-title":"The language-minority student and special education: issues, trends, and paradoxes","volume":"60","author":"Gersten","year":"1994","journal-title":"Except. Child."},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-023-00437-y","article-title":"Students\u2019 digital technology attitude, literacy and self-efficacy and their effect on online learning engagement","volume":"21","author":"Getenet","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.3390\/technologies13090396","article-title":"Rewired leadership: integrating AI-powered mediation and decision-making in higher education institutions","volume":"13","author":"Gkanatsiou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Technologies"},{"key":"ref45","volume-title":"The role of self-efficacy in self-regulation learning in online college courses","author":"Glenn","year":"2018"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1177\/10711813241274423","article-title":"How does variation in AI performance affect trust in AI-infused systems: a case study with in-vehicle voice control systems","volume":"68","author":"Gu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Annu. Meet."},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmal.2022.100027","article-title":"Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in second language and education research: guidelines using an applied example","volume":"1","author":"Hair","year":"2022","journal-title":"Res. Methods Appl. Linguist."},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-80519-7","volume-title":"Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) using R: A workbook","author":"Hair","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-80519-7","volume-title":"A primer on partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM)","author":"Hair","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-80519-7","volume-title":"A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM)","author":"Hair","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1007\/s11747-011-0261-6","article-title":"An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural equation modeling in marketing research","volume":"40","author":"Hair","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Acad. Mark. Sci."},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1108\/EBR-11-2018-0203","article-title":"When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM","volume":"31","author":"Hair","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Bus. Rev."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15040534","article-title":"Consumer autonomy in generative AI services: the role of task difficulty and AI design elements in enhancing trust, satisfaction, and usage intention","volume":"15","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Behav. Sci. (Basel)."},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14761","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13375-1","article-title":"Exploring the relationship among technology acceptance, learner engagement and critical thinking in the Chinese college-level EFL context","volume":"30","author":"Han","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104499","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nepr.2025.104499","article-title":"The mediation effect of AI self-efficacy between AI literacy and learning engagement in college nursing students: a cross-sectional study","volume":"22","author":"He","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nurse Educ. Pract."},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1007\/s11747-014-0403-8","article-title":"A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling","volume":"43","author":"Henseler","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Acad. Mark. Sci."},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1108\/JRIT-05-2024-0136","article-title":"Examining AI competence, chatbot use and perceived autonomy as drivers of students\u2019 engagement in informal digital learning","volume":"17","author":"Hidayat-ur-Rehman","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Res. Innov. Teach. Learn."},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.array.2025.100399","article-title":"The role of agentic AI in shaping a smart future: a systematic review","volume":"22","author":"Hosseini","year":"2025","journal-title":"Array"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1552","DOI":"10.1177\/01461672231225364","article-title":"Need support and need thwarting: a meta-analysis of autonomy, competence, and relatedness supportive and thwarting behaviors in student populations","volume":"51","author":"Howard","year":"2025","journal-title":"Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dss.2012.05.014","article-title":"Examining the role of learning engagement in technology-mediated learning and its effects on learning effectiveness and satisfaction","volume":"53","author":"Hu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Decis. Support. Syst."},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13784-2","article-title":"Can pedagogical agent-based scaffolding boost information problem-solving in one-on-one collaborative learning with a virtual learning companion?","volume":"22","author":"Hu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/08874417.2025.2483832","article-title":"AI agents and agentic systems: a multi-expert analysis","volume":"12","author":"Hughes","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Comput. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1016\/0305-0483(95)00035-6","article-title":"The effects of self-efficacy on computer usage","volume":"23","author":"Igbaria","year":"1995","journal-title":"Omega"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1548900","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2025.1548900","article-title":"Perceived institutional support and its effects on student perceptions of AI learning in higher education: the role of mediating perceived learning outcomes and moderating technology self-efficacy","volume":"10","author":"Jeilani","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Educ."},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2012.681067","article-title":"The impact of self-efficacy and perceived system efficacy on effectiveness of virtual training systems","volume":"33","author":"Jia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Behav. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.2304\/elea.2004.1.1.7","article-title":"Designs for learning","volume":"1","author":"Kalantzis","year":"2004","journal-title":"E-Learn. Digit. Media"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci15081006","article-title":"Beyond assistance: embracing AI as a collaborative co-agent in education","volume":"15","author":"Katsenou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Sci."},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1007\/s11115-024-00770-4","article-title":"The role of AI self-efficacy in religious contexts in public sector: the social cognitive theory perspective","volume":"24","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Public Organ. Rev."},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.4018\/ijec.2015100101","article-title":"Common method bias in PLS-SEM: a full collinearity assessment approach","volume":"11","author":"Kock","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. e-Collabor."},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s10207-007-0028-8","article-title":"Building online trust through privacy practices","volume":"6","author":"Lauer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Secur."},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-024-01979-0","article-title":"Artificial intelligence (AI)-integrated educational applications and college students\u2019 creativity and academic emotions: students and teachers\u2019 perceptions and attitudes","volume":"12","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Psychol."},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s40561-023-00260-y","article-title":"Artificial intelligence in intelligent tutoring systems toward sustainable education: a systematic review","volume":"10","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Smart Learn. Environ."},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11299","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-024-13296-5","article-title":"Impact of AI gamification on EFL learning outcomes and nonlinear dynamic motivation: comparing adaptive learning paths, conversational agents, and storytelling","volume":"30","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lmot.2025.102129","article-title":"AI-powered personalized learning: enhancing self-efficacy, motivation, and digital literacy in adult education through expectancy-value theory","volume":"90","author":"Lyu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Learn. Motiv."},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.20961\/ijie.v8i1.89596","article-title":"The role of AI in fostering computational thinking and self-efficacy in educational settings: a systematic review","volume":"8","author":"Massaty","year":"2024","journal-title":"IJIE"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21582440231217736","DOI":"10.1177\/21582440231217737","article-title":"Teacher autonomy support influence on online learning engagement: the mediating roles of self-efficacy and self-regulated learning","volume":"13","author":"Miao","year":"2023","journal-title":"SAGE Open"},{"key":"ref77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1128\/jmbe.v21i1.1955","article-title":"Connecting theory to practice: using self-determination theory to better understand inclusion in STEM","volume":"21","author":"Moore","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Biol. Educ."},{"key":"ref78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.im.2005.08.006","article-title":"Understanding information technology acceptance by individual professionals: toward an integrative view","volume":"43","author":"Mun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.69478\/JITC2024v6n002a03","article-title":"Digital education revolution: evaluating LMS-based learning and traditional approaches","volume":"6","author":"Munna","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Innov. Technol. Converg."},{"key":"ref80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/MIS.2025.3544940","article-title":"The rise of agentic AI: implications, concerns, and the path forward","volume":"40","author":"Murugesan","year":"2025","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssaho.2024.101168","article-title":"Improving students\u2019 openness to artificial intelligence through risk awareness and digital literacy: evidence form a developing country","volume":"10","author":"Musyaffi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Humanit. Open"},{"key":"ref82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1027\/1016-9040\/a000234","article-title":"Autonomy support in the classroom","volume":"20","author":"N\u00fa\u00f1ez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Psychol."},{"key":"ref83","volume-title":"Psychometric theory","author":"Nunnally","year":"1994"},{"key":"ref84","volume-title":"An evaluation of the learning management system for increasing student engagement in higher education a review","author":"Ok","year":"2025"},{"key":"ref85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2010.03.015","article-title":"Internet use intention and adoption among Chinese older adults: from the expanded technology acceptance model perspective","volume":"26","author":"Pan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Human Behav."},{"key":"ref86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102097","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2022.102097","article-title":"The relations between urban high school science students\u2019 agentic mindset, agentic engagement, and perceived teacher autonomy support and control","volume":"71","author":"Patall","year":"2022","journal-title":"Contemp. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100094","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbah.2024.100094","article-title":"AI as decision aid or delegated agent: the effects of trust dimensions on the adoption of AI digital agents","volume":"2","author":"Pathak","year":"2024","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav. Artif. Humans"},{"key":"ref88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.88.5.879","article-title":"Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies","volume":"88","author":"Podsakoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1080\/08874417.2023.2219668","article-title":"What determines AI adoption in companies? Mixed-method evidence","volume":"64","author":"Polisetty","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Comput. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e16968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e16968","article-title":"Understanding the factors affecting AI services adoption in hospitality: the role of behavioral reasons and emotional intelligence","volume":"9","author":"Rasheed","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1037\/a0032690","article-title":"How students create motivationally supportive learning environments for themselves: the concept of agentic engagement","volume":"105","author":"Reeve","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1080\/00405841.2019.1702451","article-title":"How teachers can support students\u2019 agentic engagement","volume":"59","author":"Reeve","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theory Pract."},{"key":"ref93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1177\/1523422318756954","article-title":"Self-determination theory in human resource development: new directions and practical considerations","volume":"20","author":"Rigby","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Dev. Hum. Resour."},{"key":"ref94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s11092-015-9229-2","article-title":"Assessing self-regulated learning in higher education: a systematic literature review of self-report instruments","volume":"28","author":"Roth","year":"2016","journal-title":"Educ. Assess. Eval. Account."},{"key":"ref95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2020.101860","article-title":"Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: definitions, theory, practices, and future directions","volume":"61","author":"Ryan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Contemp. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2025.105350","article-title":"\u2018Fire! Do not fire!\u2019: Investigating the effects of autonomous systems on agency and moral decision-making","volume":"260","author":"Salatino","year":"2025","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.63496\/ejhs.Vol1.Iss6.182","article-title":"Empowering learners: exploring teaching strategies, AI integration, and motivation tools for fostering autonomous learning in higher education","volume":"1","author":"Saleh","year":"2025","journal-title":"East J. Hum. Sci."},{"key":"ref98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-05542-8_15-2","article-title":"Partial least squares structural equation modeling","volume-title":"Handbook of market research","author":"Sarstedt","year":"2021"},{"key":"ref99","volume-title":"Social cognitive theory","author":"Schunk","year":"2012"},{"key":"ref100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e29523","article-title":"Artificial intelligence and social media on academic performance and mental well-being: student perceptions of positive impact in the age of smart learning","volume":"10","author":"Shahzad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3053","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2331858","article-title":"Understanding user attitudes towards AI-enabled technologies: an integrated model of self-efficacy, TAM, and AI ethics","volume":"41","author":"Shao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Human\u2013Computer Interact."},{"key":"ref102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lmot.2025.102151","article-title":"EFL students\u2019 motivation predicted by their self-efficacy and resilience in artificial intelligence (AI)-based context: from a self-determination theory perspective","volume":"91","author":"Shi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Learn. Motiv."},{"key":"ref103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20913","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13591-9","article-title":"Extending the TAM framework: exploring learning motivation and agility in educational adoption of generative AI","volume":"30","author":"\u015eim\u015fek","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-2616(98)90006-7","article-title":"Social cognitive theory and self-efficacy: goin beyond traditional motivational and behavioral approaches","volume":"26","author":"Stajkovic","year":"1998","journal-title":"Organ. Dyn."},{"key":"ref105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1921","DOI":"10.1002\/sd.3221","article-title":"AI-driven adaptive learning for sustainable educational transformation","volume":"33","author":"Strielkowski","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102011","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2024.102011","article-title":"Student interaction with ChatGPT can promote complex critical thinking skills","volume":"95","author":"Suriano","year":"2025","journal-title":"Learn. Instr."},{"key":"ref107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/02602938.2024.2374485","article-title":"Interacting with ChatGPT for internal feedback and factors affecting feedback quality","volume":"22","author":"Tam","year":"2024","journal-title":"Assess. Eval. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8938","DOI":"10.1109\/TEM.2023.3296132","article-title":"Exploring the factors affecting telemedicine adoption by integrating UTAUT2 and IS success model: a hybrid SEM\u2013ANN approach","volume":"71","author":"Thabet","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.56327\/jurnaltam.v12i1.1005","article-title":"The effect of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use on the Google classroom against learning motivation","volume":"12","author":"Tuffahati","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. TAM"},{"key":"ref110","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1177\/00224669040380010301","article-title":"Cultural and linguistic diversity and the special education workforce: a critical overview","volume":"38","author":"Tyler","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Spec. Educ."},{"key":"ref111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5465\/amr.2022.0041","article-title":"Artificial intelligence, trust, and perceptions of agency","author":"Vanneste","year":"2024","journal-title":"Acad. Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref112","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1080\/00220973.2017.1381067","article-title":"Fostering personal meaning and self-relevance: a self-determination theory perspective on internalization","volume":"86","author":"Vansteenkiste","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Exp. Educ."},{"key":"ref113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1287\/isre.11.4.342.11872","article-title":"Determinants of perceived ease of use: integrating control, intrinsic motivation, and emotion into the technology acceptance model","volume":"11","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2000","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1287\/mnsc.46.2.186.11926","article-title":"A theoretical extension of the technology acceptance model: four longitudinal field studies","volume":"46","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2000","journal-title":"Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.2307\/41410412","article-title":"Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology","volume":"36","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2012","journal-title":"MIS Q."},{"key":"ref116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40593-024-00433-x","article-title":"What explains teachers\u2019 trust in AI in education across six countries?","volume":"22","author":"Viberg","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Artif. Intell. Educ."},{"key":"ref117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2008","DOI":"10.1177\/00315125241272672","article-title":"Modeling the contributions of perceived teacher autonomy support and school climate to Chinese EFL students\u2019 learning engagement","volume":"131","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"ref118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6649","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2024.2383033","article-title":"Factors influencing university students\u2019 behavioral intention to use generative artificial intelligence: integrating the theory of planned behavior and AI literacy","volume":"41","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Human\u2013Computer Interact."},{"key":"ref119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1108\/INTR-07-2021-0446","article-title":"The role of institutional and self in the formation of trust in artificial intelligence technologies","volume":"34","author":"Wong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Internet Res."},{"key":"ref120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.3390\/systems12090332","article-title":"Unlocking potential: key factors shaping undergraduate self-directed learning in AI-enhanced educational environments","volume":"12","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Systems"},{"key":"ref121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8691","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-022-11547-x","article-title":"The moderating effects of gender and need satisfaction on self-regulated learning through artificial intelligence (AI)","volume":"28","author":"Xia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"07356331251382853","DOI":"10.1177\/07356331251382853","article-title":"Perceptions of generative artificial intelligence (AI), behavioral intention, and use experience as predictors of university students\u2019 learning agency in generative AI-supported contexts","author":"Xia","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Educ. Comput. Res."},{"key":"ref123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2911","DOI":"10.1080\/0144929X.2022.2151935","article-title":"A meta-analysis of the efficacy of self-regulated learning interventions on academic achievement in online and blended environments in K-12 and higher education","volume":"42","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behav. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref124","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lmot.2025.102138","article-title":"Unlocking student potential: how AI-driven personalized feedback shapes goal achievement, self-efficacy, and learning engagement through a self-determination lens","volume":"91","author":"Xu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Learn. Motiv."},{"key":"ref125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci15081004","article-title":"Towards dynamic learner state: orchestrating AI agents and workplace performance via the model context protocol","volume":"15","author":"Yang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Sci."},{"key":"ref126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e34894","article-title":"Factors influencing pre-service special education teachers\u2019 intention toward AI in education: digital literacy, teacher self-efficacy, perceived ease of use, and perceived usefulness","volume":"10","author":"Yao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2010.02.005","article-title":"Determinants of users\u2019 intention to adopt wireless technology: an empirical study by integrating TTF with TAM","volume":"26","author":"Yen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Human Behav."},{"key":"ref128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s11423-017-9538-x","article-title":"The effects of autonomy support on student engagement in peer assessment","volume":"66","author":"Yuan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Educ. Technol. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.37237\/202501","article-title":"The motivational paths to self-regulated language learning: a structural equation modeling approach","volume":"16","author":"ZabihiAtergeleh","year":"2025","journal-title":"Stud. Self-Access Learn. J."},{"key":"ref130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-023-00420-7","article-title":"Acceptance of artificial intelligence among pre-service teachers: a multigroup analysis","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/berj.4196","article-title":"Performance motivation and emotion regulation as drivers of academic competence and problem-solving skills in AI-enhanced preschool education: a SEM study","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Br. Educ. Res. J."},{"key":"ref132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22735","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-025-13646-x","article-title":"The impact of AI-based adaptive learning technologies on motivation and engagement of higher education students","volume":"30","author":"Zhou","year":"2025","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012109890-2\/50031-7","article-title":"Attaining self-regulation: a social cognitive perspective","volume-title":"Handbook of self-regulation","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2000"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1738774\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T06:52:43Z","timestamp":1769064763000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1738774\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]},"references-count":133,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frai.2026.1738774"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1738774","relation":{},"ISSN":["2624-8212"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2624-8212","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]},"article-number":"1738774"}}