{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T03:07:12Z","timestamp":1773198432064,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773100800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Artif. Intell."],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Generative AI, which is capable of transforming static content into dynamic learning experiences, holds the potential to revolutionize student engagement in educational contexts. However, questions still remain around whether or not these tools are effective at facilitating student learning. In this research, we test the effectiveness of an AI-powered platform incorporating multiple representations and assessment through\n                    <jats:italic>Learn Your Way<\/jats:italic>\n                    , an experimental research platform that transforms textbook chapters into dynamic visual and audio representations. Through a between-subjects, mixed methods experiment with 60 US-based students, we demonstrate that students who used\n                    <jats:italic>Learn Your Way<\/jats:italic>\n                    had a more positive learning experience and had better learning outcomes compared to students learning the same content through a digital textbook. These findings indicate that AI-driven tools, capable of providing choice among interactive representations of content, constitute an effective and promising method for enhancing student learning.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frai.2026.1783117","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T06:42:14Z","timestamp":1773124934000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["An experimental evaluation of an AI-powered interactive learning platform"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Courtney","family":"Heldreth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Google Research","place":["Seattle, WA, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Diana","family":"Akrong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Google Research","place":["Accra, Ghana"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Laura M.","family":"Vardoulakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Google Research","place":["Mountain View, CA, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicole E.","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bold Insight","place":["Chicago, IL, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yael","family":"Haramaty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Google Research","place":["Tel Aviv, Israel"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lior","family":"Belinsky","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Google Research","place":["Tel Aviv, Israel"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lidan","family":"Hackmon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Google Research","place":["Tel Aviv, Israel"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Abraham Ortiz","family":"Tapia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bold Insight","place":["Chicago, IL, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lucy","family":"Tootill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bold Insight","place":["Chicago, IL, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Scott","family":"Siebert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bold Insight","place":["Chicago, IL, United States"]}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1983","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-52549-8","article-title":"A multinational study on the factors influencing university students' attitudes and usage of ChatGPT","volume":"14","author":"Abdaljaleel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep"},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1145\/274644.274704","article-title":"\u201cInvestigating the capture, integration and access problem of ubiquitous computing in an educational setting,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '98","author":"Abowd","year":"1998"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6159","DOI":"10.1080\/10494820.2023.2253858","article-title":"The opportunities and challenges of chatgpt in education","volume":"32","author":"Adeshola","year":"2024","journal-title":"Interact. Learn. Environm"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/S0360-1315(99)00029-9","article-title":"The functions of multiple representations","volume":"33","author":"Ainsworth","year":"1999","journal-title":"Comp. Educ"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2022.03.058","article-title":"Perceptions of learners and instructors towards artificial intelligence in personalized learning","volume":"201","author":"Al-Badi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Procedia Comp. Sci"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1126\/science.228.4698.456","article-title":"Intelligent tutoring systems","volume":"228","author":"Anderson","year":"1985","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","article-title":"Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing","volume":"57","author":"Benjamini","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Royal Statist. Soc.: Series B (Methodological)"},{"key":"B8","volume-title":"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals: By a Committee of College and University Examiners","author":"Bloom","year":"1971"},{"key":"B9","volume-title":"Thematic Analysis: A Practical Guide","author":"Braun","year":"2021"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1011143116306","article-title":"Adaptive hypermedia","volume":"11","author":"Brusilovsky","year":"2001","journal-title":"User Model. User-Adapted Interact"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1186\/s40561-023-00269-3","article-title":"The AI generation gap: Are gen Z students more interested in adopting generative AI such as ChatGPT in teaching and learning than their gen X and millennial generation teachers?","volume":"10","author":"Chan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Smart Learn. Environ"},{"key":"B12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3544548.3580777","article-title":"\u201cUncovering privacy and security challenges in k-12 schools,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2023 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '23","author":"Chanenson","year":"2023"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1109\/ICALT61570.2024.00062","article-title":"\u201cEnhancing academic performance with generative ai-based quiz platform,\u201d","volume-title":"2024 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT)","author":"Chang","year":"2024"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3613904.3642559","article-title":"\u201cCo-design partners as transformative learners: Imagining ideal technology for schools by centering speculative relationships,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '24","author":"Chang","year":"2024"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3613904.3642229","article-title":"\u201cChatScratch: An AI-augmented system toward autonomous visual programming learning for children aged 6-12,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '24","author":"Chen","year":"2024"},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8196","DOI":"10.3390\/app10228196","article-title":"Development of adaptive formative assessment system using computerized adaptive testing and dynamic bayesian networks","volume":"10","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Sci"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01320076","article-title":"Dual coding theory and education","volume":"3","author":"Clark","year":"1991","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.4018\/jmbl.2011070102","article-title":"Listening to an educational podcast while walking or jogging","volume":"3","author":"Coens","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Mob. Blended Learn"},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-044481862-1.50103-5","article-title":"\u201cChapter 37 - intelligent tutoring systems,\u201d","author":"Corbett","year":"1997","journal-title":"Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction (Second Edition)"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.88.4.715","article-title":"Intrinsic motivation and the process of learning: beneficial effects of contextualization, personalization, and choice","volume":"88","author":"Cordova","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327965PLI1104_01","article-title":"The \u201cwhat\u201d and \u201cwhy\u201d of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior","volume":"11","author":"Deci","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychol. Inquiry"},{"key":"B22","article-title":"Teacher-AI collaboration for curating and customizing lesson plans in low-resource schools","author":"Dennison","year":"2025","journal-title":"arXiv [Preprint]"},{"key":"B23","article-title":"Can we trust AI-generated educational content? Comparative analysis of human and AI-generated learning resources","author":"Denny","year":"2023","journal-title":"arXiv [Preprint]"},{"key":"B24","first-page":"198","article-title":"\u201cThe effects of an embodied pedagogical agent's synthetic speech accent on learning outcomes,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2022 International Conference on Multimodal Interaction, ICMI '22","author":"Do","year":"2022"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3706598.3713460","article-title":"\u201cPAIGE: examining learning outcomes and experiences with personalized AI-generated educational podcasts,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '25","author":"Do","year":"2025"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1037\/10011-000","volume-title":"Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology.","author":"Ebbinghaus","year":"1913"},{"key":"B27","first-page":"1","article-title":"The Influence of artificial intelligence on education: Enhancing personalized learning experiences","volume":"14675","author":"Frank","year":"2024","journal-title":"EasyChair Preprint"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03195563","article-title":"Autotutor: A tutor with dialogue in natural language","volume":"36","author":"Graesser","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods, Instrum. Comp"},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3613904.3642438","article-title":"\u201cTeachers, parents, and students' perspectives on integrating generative ai into elementary literacy education,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '24","author":"Han","year":"2024"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.3102\/003465430298487","article-title":"The power of feedback","volume":"77","author":"Hattie","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Educ. Res"},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1177\/1049732316665344","article-title":"Code saturation versus meaning saturation: how many interviews are enough?","volume":"27","author":"Hennink","year":"2017","journal-title":"Qualitat. Health Res"},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v028.i08","article-title":"Implementing a class of permutation tests: the coin package","volume":"28","author":"Hothorn","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Statist. Softw"},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"CSCW2","DOI":"10.1145\/3555133","article-title":"\u201cIt's a lonely disease\u201d: Cultivating online spaces for social support among people living with dementia and dementia caregivers","volume":"6","author":"Johnson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1145\/2724660.2724681","article-title":"\u201cLearning is not a spectator sport: doing is better than watching for learning from a mooc,\u201d","author":"Koedinger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Second (2015) ACM Conference on Learning"},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.3102\/0034654315581420","article-title":"Effectiveness of intelligent tutoring systems: a meta-analytic review","volume":"86","author":"Kulik","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rev. Educ. Res"},{"key":"B36","first-page":"1","article-title":"\u201cPrivacy and security considerations for digital technology use in elementary schools,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '19","author":"Kumar","year":"2019"},{"key":"B37","unstructured":"\u201cBrain development during adolescence,\u201d\n          \n          \n            \n              Learning\n              L.\n            \n          \n          Lifespan Development. Lumen Learning\n          \n          2019"},{"key":"B38","first-page":"1","article-title":"\u201cPutting things into context: Generative AI-enabled context personalization for vocabulary learning improves learning motivation,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '24","author":"Leong","year":"2024"},{"key":"B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02765364","article-title":"Children's learning of all the news that's fit to picture","volume":"28","author":"Levin","year":"1980","journal-title":"ECTJ"},{"key":"B40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1145\/3698205.3729550","article-title":"\u201cCan learners navigate imperfect generative pedagogical chatbots? An analysis of chatbot errors on learning,\u201d","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Twelfth ACM Conference on Learning"},{"key":"B41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3613904.3642947","article-title":"\u201cClassmeta: Designing interactive virtual classmate to promote vr classroom participation,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '24","author":"Liu","year":"2024"},{"key":"B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2024.09.709","article-title":"Enhancing academic tutoring with AI \u2013 a conceptual framework","volume":"246","author":"\u0141uczak","year":"2024","journal-title":"Procedia Computer Science"},{"key":"B43","first-page":"85","article-title":"\u201cMultimedia learning,\u201d","volume-title":"Psychology of Learning and Motivation","author":"Mayer","year":"2002"},{"key":"B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0022-0663.82.4.715","article-title":"When is an illustration worth ten thousand words?","volume":"82","author":"Mayer","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol"},{"key":"B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.91.2.358","article-title":"A cognitive theory of multimedia learning: Implications for design principles","volume":"91","author":"Mayer","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Educat. Psychol"},{"key":"B46","unstructured":"MCcall\n              A.\n            \n          \n          \n          2024"},{"key":"B47","first-page":"1","article-title":"\u201cUnderstanding what you feel: a mobile audio-tactile system for graphics used at schools with students with visual impairment,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '20","author":"Melfi","year":"2020"},{"key":"B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100022","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chbah.2023.100022","article-title":"Chatgpt in education: methods, potentials, and limitations","volume":"1","author":"Memarian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Comp. Human Behav.: Artif. Humans"},{"key":"B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/s11257-011-9105-9","article-title":"Fifteen years of constraint-based tutors: what we have achieved and where we are going","volume":"22","author":"Mitrovic","year":"2012","journal-title":"User Model. User-Adapted Interact"},{"key":"B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0022-0663.92.4.724","article-title":"Engaging students in active learning: The case for personalized multimedia messages","volume":"92","author":"Moreno","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol"},{"key":"B51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-007-9047-2","article-title":"Interactive multimodal learning environments","volume":"19","author":"Moreno","year":"2007","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev"},{"key":"B52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3491102.3517667","article-title":"\u201cParticipatory design goes to school: Co-teaching as a form of co-design for educational technology,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '22","author":"Nicholson","year":"2022"},{"key":"B53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195066661.001.0001","volume-title":"Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach","author":"Paivio","year":"1990"},{"key":"B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/03075079.2025.2487570","article-title":"Mastering knowledge: the impact of generative ai on student learning outcomes","author":"Pallant","year":"2025","journal-title":"Stud. Higher Educ"},{"key":"B55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00422","article-title":"A review of self-regulated learning: six models and four directions for research","volume":"8","author":"Panadero","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychol"},{"key":"B56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3613904.3642785","article-title":"\u201cThe promise and peril of chatGPT in higher education: Opportunities, challenges, and design implications,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2024 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '24","author":"Park","year":"2024"},{"key":"B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.134.2.270","article-title":"The effects of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes: a meta-analysis of research findings","volume":"134","author":"Patall","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychol. Bullet"},{"key":"B58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2729.2010.00364.x","article-title":"Adaptation provisioning with respect to learning styles in a web-based educational system: an experimental study","volume":"26","author":"Popescu","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Learn"},{"key":"B59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3706598.3714146","article-title":"\u201cExploring multimodal generative AI for education through co-design workshops with students,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '25","author":"Prasad","year":"2025"},{"key":"B60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1080\/10508400903191896","article-title":"Effects of example choice on interest, control, and learning","volume":"18","author":"Reber","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Learn. Sci"},{"key":"B61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1145\/169059.169209","article-title":"\u201cThe cost structure of sensemaking,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the INTERACT '93 and CHI '93 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '93","author":"Russell","year":"1993"},{"key":"B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0003-066X.55.1.68","article-title":"Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being","volume":"55","author":"Ryan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. Psychol"},{"key":"B63","first-page":"1613","article-title":"\u201cExpressive robots in education: varying the degree of social supportive behavior of a robotic tutor,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '10","author":"Saerbeck","year":"2010"},{"key":"B64","first-page":"343","article-title":"\u201cDesigning for or designing with? informant design for interactive learning environments,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '97","author":"Scaife","year":"1997"},{"key":"B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.edurev.2017.11.001","article-title":"A meta-analysis of how signaling affects learning with media","volume":"23","author":"Schneider","year":"","journal-title":"Educ. Res. Rev"},{"key":"B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2018.06.006","article-title":"The autonomy-enhancing effects of choice on cognitive load, motivation and learning with digital media","volume":"58","author":"Schneider","year":"","journal-title":"Learn. Instruct"},{"key":"B67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/52.3-4.591","article-title":"An analysis of variance test for normality (complete samples)","volume":"52","author":"Shapiro","year":"1965","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"B68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.17763\/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411","article-title":"Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform","volume":"57","author":"Shulman","year":"1987","journal-title":"Harvard Educ. Rev"},{"key":"B69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1145\/169059.169078","article-title":"\u201cDo algorithm animations assist learning? an empirical study and analysis,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the INTERACT '93 and CHI '93 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '93","author":"Stasko","year":"1993"},{"key":"B70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s41239-024-00446-5","article-title":"Would ChatGPT-facilitated programming mode impact college students' programming behaviors, performances, and perceptions? An empirical study. Int","volume":"21","author":"Sun","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ"},{"key":"B71","unstructured":"The effects of multimedia and learning style on student achievement in online electronics course\n          \n          116\n          122\n          \n            \n              Surjono\n              H. D.\n            \n          \n          Turk. Online J. Educ. Technol.-TOJET\n          14\n          2015"},{"key":"B72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1145\/3706599.3706745","article-title":"\u201cTools for thought: research and design for understanding, protecting, and augmenting human cognition with generative AI,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Extended Abstracts of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI EA '25","author":"Tankelevitch","year":"2025"},{"key":"B73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s44366-025-0056-9","article-title":"Empowering personalized learning with generative artificial intelligence: Mechanisms, challenges and pathways","volume":"2","author":"Tu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Front. Digit. Educ"},{"key":"B74","article-title":"\u201cAI and children: a workshop in New York, 2019,\u201d","volume-title":"Technical Report","year":"2019"},{"key":"B75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3569897","article-title":"Emerging technologies in k\u201312 education: a future HCI research agenda","volume":"30","author":"Van Mechelen","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact"},{"key":"B76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121114","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2024.3452592","article-title":"Personalization of learning: Machine learning models for adapting educational content to individual learning styles","volume":"12","author":"Villegas-Ch","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"B77","article-title":"\u201cTowards an AI-augmented textbook,\u201d","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Technical Report"},{"key":"B78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.12968\/prtu.2012.1.6.8","article-title":"Seven keys to effective feedback","volume":"70","author":"Wiggins","year":"2012","journal-title":"Feedback"},{"key":"B79","first-page":"1","article-title":"\u201cSara, the lecturer: improving learning in online education with a scaffolding-based conversational agent,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '20","author":"Winkler","year":"2020"},{"key":"B80","first-page":"1","article-title":"\u201c'It's a spectrum': exploring autonomy, competence, and relatedness in software development processes and tools,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2025 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '25","author":"Wong","year":"2025"},{"key":"B81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315370279","volume-title":"Generalized Additive Models: An Introduction with R","author":"Wood","year":"2017"},{"key":"B82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2022.100104","article-title":"Adaptive formative assessment system based on computerized adaptive testing and the learning memory cycle for personalized learning","volume":"3","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comp. Educ.: Artif. Intellig"},{"key":"B83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/8812542","article-title":"A review of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in education from 2010 to 2020","volume":"2021","author":"Zhai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Complexity"},{"key":"B84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"100025","DOI":"10.1016\/j.caeai.2021.100025","article-title":"AI technologies for education: Recent research & future directions","volume":"2","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comp. Educ.: Artif. Intellig"},{"key":"B85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1006\/ceps.1999.1016","article-title":"Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn","volume":"25","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Contemp. Educ. Psychol"},{"key":"B86","first-page":"299","article-title":"\u201cSelf-regulation: Where metacognition and motivation intersect,\u201d","volume-title":"Handbook of Metacognition in Education","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2009"},{"key":"B87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1145\/1054972.1055093","article-title":"\u201cExtending tangible interfaces for education: digital montessori-inspired manipulatives,\u201d","volume-title":"Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI '05","author":"Zuckerman","year":"2005"}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1783117\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]],"date-time":"2026-03-10T06:42:25Z","timestamp":1773124945000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1783117\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"references-count":87,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frai.2026.1783117"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frai.2026.1783117","relation":{},"ISSN":["2624-8212"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2624-8212","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,10]]},"article-number":"1783117"}}