{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T16:10:55Z","timestamp":1777651855880,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]],"date-time":"2025-09-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758844800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Commun. Netw."],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title><jats:p>With the rapid evolution of vehicular networks, delay-sensitive applications such as autonomous driving and real-time navigation have gained significant attention. However, vehicles with limited computational resources often fail to meet low-latency demands, creating a critical bottleneck in system performance.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>To address this challenge, we propose the use of Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) for offloading time-sensitive tasks to roadside servers, reducing response times through localized processing and network intelligence. A mathematical model based on Markov Chains was developed to capture traffic dynamics and response behaviors in vehicular environments. This model enables analytical performance evaluation without relying on time-consuming simulations.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Experimental evaluation shows that the analytical model provides predictions consistent with simulation outcomes. Specifically, for vehicle counts ranging from 20 to 120, the model estimated average response times between 0.023\u20130.505 s, closely matching the simulation baseline of 0.019\u20130.482 s. The relative error was between 3.4% and 24.0%, with a mean of 11.7%.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>The results validate the practicality and effectiveness of the proposed approach in meeting delay-sensitive requirements. Beyond vehicular networks, the modeling framework can also be extended to support smart campus initiatives, including mobility solutions, IoT management, and intelligent infrastructure systems, highlighting its broader applicability in advancing smart technologies.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.3389\/frcmn.2025.1657378","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]],"date-time":"2025-09-26T09:47:31Z","timestamp":1758880051000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Modeling and analysis of response time in vehicular networks using Markov chains"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Masood","family":"Kalamati","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hasan","family":"Raei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bulbula","family":"Kumeda Kussia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sadiq","family":"Hussain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Emrah","family":"Arslan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Javad","family":"Hassannataj Joloudari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Silvia","family":"Gaftandzhieva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1587\/transcom.2017nri0001","article-title":"Mobile edge computing empowers internet of things","volume":"101","author":"Ansari","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEICE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"B2","volume-title":"Queueing networks: customers, signals, and product form solutions","author":"Chao","year":"1999"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4377","DOI":"10.1109\/jiot.2018.2876298","article-title":"Joint load balancing and offloading in vehicular edge computing and networks","volume":"6","author":"Dai","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1186\/1687-1499-2013-179","article-title":"Investigation of routing reliability of vehicular ad hoc networks","volume":"2013","author":"Eiza","year":"2013","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2010.10.015","article-title":"Vehicular networks and the future of the mobile internet","volume":"55","author":"Gerla","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4514","DOI":"10.1109\/tvt.2018.2790421","article-title":"Collaborative computation offloading for multiaccess edge computing over fiber\u2013wireless networks","volume":"67","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4977","DOI":"10.1109\/jiot.2018.2838584","article-title":"Mobile-edge computation offloading for ultradense IoT networks","volume":"5","author":"Guo","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e5625","DOI":"10.1002\/dac.5625","article-title":"A systematic review of congestion control in internet of vehicles and vehicular ad hoc networks: techniques, challenges, and open issues","volume":"37","author":"Hemmati","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Commun. Syst."},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"17741","DOI":"10.1109\/access.2018.2820679","article-title":"V2V data offloading for cellular network based on the software defined network (SDN) inside mobile edge computing (MEC) architecture","volume":"6","author":"Huang","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics14030510","article-title":"Framework for analyzing spatial interference in vehicle-to-vehicle communication networks with positional errors","volume":"14","author":"Kanthasamy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1109\/jsac.2011.110109","article-title":"A region-based clustering mechanism for channel access in vehicular ad hoc networks","volume":"29","author":"Lai","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"B12","first-page":"554","article-title":"Performance evaluation of R-ALOHA in distributed packet radio networks with hard real-time communications","author":"Liu","year":"1995"},{"key":"B13","first-page":"1","article-title":"A computation offloading algorithm based on game theory for vehicular edge networks","author":"Liu","year":"2018"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2322","DOI":"10.1109\/comst.2017.2745201","article-title":"A survey on mobile edge computing: the communication perspective","volume":"19","author":"Mao","year":"","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. and tutorials"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5994","DOI":"10.1109\/twc.2017.2717986","article-title":"Stochastic joint radio and computational resource management for multi-user mobile-edge computing systems","volume":"16","author":"Mao","year":"","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s10723-024-09752-8","article-title":"Dueling double deep Q network strategy in MEC for smart internet of vehicles edge computing networks","volume":"22","author":"Pang","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Grid Comput."},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1109\/iotm.001.2300109","article-title":"Intrusion detection systems in automotive ethernet networks: challenges, opportunities and future research trends","volume":"7","author":"Quadar","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things Mag."},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-023-03473-8","article-title":"An elliptic curve cryptography based certificate-less signature aggregation scheme for efficient authentication in vehicular ad hoc networks","volume":"30","author":"Rajkumar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Wirel. Netw."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8050534","article-title":"Enabling green wireless sensor networks: energy efficient T-MAC using Markov chain based optimization","volume":"8","author":"Ram","year":"2019","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1145\/321941.321955","article-title":"A simple approximation to the average queue size in the time-dependent M\/M\/1 queue","volume":"23","author":"Rider","year":"1976","journal-title":"J. ACM (JACM)."},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1109\/tc.2018.2818144","article-title":"Cloudlets activation scheme for scalable mobile edge computing with transmission power control and virtual machine migration","volume":"67","author":"Rodrigues","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Comput."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87505","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-024-18754-3","article-title":"PMA-KDP: privacy-preserving mutual authentication and key distribution protocol in vehicular Ad-hoc networks (VANETs)","volume":"83","author":"Sahu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Multimedia Tools Appl."},{"key":"B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics14040672","article-title":"A seamless authentication scheme for edge-assisted internet of vehicles environments using chaotic maps","volume":"14","author":"Son","year":"2025","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6757","DOI":"10.1109\/access.2017.2685434","article-title":"A survey on mobile edge networks: convergence of computing, caching and communications","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ieee Access"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8050583","article-title":"Analysis and design of functional device for vehicular cloud computing","volume":"8","author":"Wu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Electronics"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.simpat.2023.102870","article-title":"An efficient many-objective optimization algorithm for computation offloading in heterogeneous vehicular edge computing network","volume":"131","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Simul. Model. Pract. Theory"},{"key":"B27","first-page":"2218","article-title":"Connectivity aware routing in vehicular networks","author":"Yang","year":"2008"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2092","DOI":"10.1109\/tvt.2019.2959410","article-title":"Task offloading in vehicular edge computing networks: a load-balancing solution","volume":"69","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Communications and Networks"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frcmn.2025.1657378\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]],"date-time":"2025-09-26T09:47:32Z","timestamp":1758880052000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frcmn.2025.1657378\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]]},"references-count":28,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frcmn.2025.1657378"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frcmn.2025.1657378","relation":{},"ISSN":["2673-530X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2673-530X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,26]]},"article-number":"1657378"}}