{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T18:13:54Z","timestamp":1775067234835,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1678838400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100011950","name":"ITEA","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["17021 IMPACT 20044 ASSIST"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17021 IMPACT 20044 ASSIST"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100011950","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Robot. AI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fiber reinforced soft pneumatic actuators are hard to control due to their non-linear behavior and non-uniformity introduced by the fabrication process. Model-based controllers generally have difficulty compensating non-uniform and non-linear material behaviors, whereas model-free approaches are harder to interpret and tune intuitively. In this study, we present the design, fabrication, characterization, and control of a fiber reinforced soft pneumatic module with an outer diameter size of 12\u00a0mm. Specifically, we utilized the characterization data to adaptively control the soft pneumatic actuator. From the measured characterization data, we fitted mapping functions between the actuator input pressures and the actuator space angles. These maps were used to construct the feedforward control signal and tune the feedback controller adaptively depending on the actuator bending configuration. The performance of the proposed control approach is experimentally validated by comparing the measured 2D tip orientation against the reference trajectory. The adaptive controller was able to successfully follow the prescribed trajectory with a mean absolute error of 0.68\u00b0 for the magnitude of the bending angle and 3.5\u00b0 for the bending phase around the axial direction. The data-driven control method introduced in this paper may offer a solution to intuitively tune and control soft pneumatic actuators, compensating for their non-uniform and non-linear behavior.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2023.1056118","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T04:22:46Z","timestamp":1678854166000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Adaptive control of a soft pneumatic actuator using experimental characterization data"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Yoeko Xavier","family":"Mak","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hamid","family":"Naghibi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yuanxiang","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Momen","family":"Abayazid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2010.02.131","article-title":"Online tuning gain scheduling MIMO neural PID control of the 2-axes pneumatic artificial muscle (PAM) robot arm","volume":"37","author":"Anh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"B2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2017.2734247","article-title":"Multiobjective optimization for stiffness and position control in a soft robot arm module","volume":"3","author":"Ansari","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Robotics Automation Lett."},{"key":"B3","volume-title":"Adaptive control","author":"\u00c5str\u00f6m","year":"2013"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3398","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2020.2976326","article-title":"Model-based pose control of inflatable eversion robot with variable stiffness","volume":"5","author":"Ataka","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Robotics Automation Lett."},{"key":"B5","first-page":"417","article-title":"Soft robot control with a learned differentiable model","author":"Bern","year":"2020"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012170960-0\/50086-4","article-title":"Gain-scheduled controllers","volume-title":"The electrical engineering handbook","author":"Bett","year":"2005"},{"key":"B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2020.3038693","article-title":"Data-driven control of soft robots using koopman operator theory","volume":"37","author":"Bruder","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robotics"},{"key":"B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1261","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2015.2489500","article-title":"Continuum robots for medical applications: A survey","volume":"31","author":"Burgner-Kahrs","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robotics"},{"key":"B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2019.2893610","article-title":"Comparison of modeling approaches for a tendon actuated continuum robot with three extensible segments","volume":"4","author":"Chikhaoui","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Robotics Automation Lett."},{"key":"B10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6586","DOI":"10.3390\/app11146586","article-title":"Fusing dexterity and perception for soft robot-assisted minimally invasive surgery: What we learnt from STIFF-FLOP","volume":"11","author":"Dawood","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Sci."},{"key":"B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364919897292","article-title":"Model-based dynamic feedback control of a planar soft robot: Trajectory tracking and interaction with the environment","volume":"39","author":"Della Santina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Robotics Res."},{"key":"B12","first-page":"3982","article-title":"Control of elastic soft robots based on real-time finite element method","author":"Duriez","year":"2013"},{"key":"B13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1007\/8415_2012_125","article-title":"Sofa: A multi-model framework for interactive physical simulation","volume-title":"Soft tissue biomechanical modeling for computer assisted surgery","author":"Faure","year":"2012"},{"key":"B14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-23807-0_9","article-title":"Soft fiber-reinforced pneumatic actuator design and fabrication: Towards robust, soft robotic systems","volume-title":"Proc. Of towards autonomous robotic systems","author":"Fras","year":"2019"},{"key":"B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2017.0007","article-title":"Control strategies for soft robotic manipulators: A survey","volume":"5","author":"George Thuruthel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Soft Robot."},{"key":"B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2015.2428511","article-title":"Neural network and jacobian method for solving the inverse statics of a cable-driven soft arm with nonconstant curvature","volume":"31","author":"Giorelli","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robotics"},{"key":"B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3175","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2021.3055339","article-title":"Kinematic modeling and control of variable curvature soft continuum robots","volume":"26","author":"Huang","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatronics"},{"key":"B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"AB119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gie.2008.03.182","article-title":"Retraction force measurement during transgastric and transvaginal NOTES","volume":"67","author":"Jamidar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Gastrointest. Endosc."},{"key":"B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2015.0013","article-title":"Autonomous object manipulation using a soft planar grasping manipulator","volume":"2","author":"Katzschmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Soft Robot."},{"key":"B20","first-page":"56","article-title":"Evaluation of design aspects of modular pneumatic soft robotic endoscopes","author":"Lenssen","year":"2019"},{"key":"B21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111957","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2020.111957","article-title":"High-force soft pneumatic actuators based on novel casting method for robotic applications","volume":"306","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sensors Actuators A: Phys."},{"key":"B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmat.2020.103366","article-title":"Ecoflex polymer of different Shore hardnesses: Experimental investigations and constitutive modelling","volume":"144","author":"Liao","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mech. Mater."},{"key":"B23","first-page":"5392","article-title":"An evaluation of closed-loop control options for continuum manipulators","author":"Penning","year":"2012"},{"key":"B24","unstructured":"Gastroenterology, product overview2021"},{"key":"B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1518","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2018.2868815","article-title":"Discrete Cosserat approach for multisection soft manipulator dynamics","volume":"34","author":"Renda","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robotics"},{"key":"B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2018.0136","article-title":"Soft Robotics in minimally invasive surgery","volume":"6","author":"Runciman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Soft Robot."},{"key":"B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1038\/nature14543","article-title":"Design, fabrication and control of soft robots","volume":"521","author":"Rus","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2017.2743100","article-title":"Control space reduction and real-time accurate modeling of continuum manipulators using ritz and ritz\u2013galerkin methods","volume":"3","author":"Sadati","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Robotics Automation Lett."},{"key":"B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"036010","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-3190\/aab19c","article-title":"Design and analysis of coiled fiber reinforced soft pneumatic actuator","volume":"13","author":"Singh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bioinspiration Biomimetics"},{"key":"B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1089\/soro.2020.0081","article-title":"Static modeling of the fiber-reinforced soft pneumatic actuators including inner compression: Bending in free space, block force, and deflection upon block force","volume":"9","author":"Sun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soft Robot."},{"key":"B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364919842269","article-title":"Real-time dynamics of soft and continuum robots based on Cosserat rod models","volume":"38","author":"Till","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Robotics Res."},{"key":"B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3299","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2020.2976320","article-title":"Distributed proprioception of 3D configuration in soft, sensorized robots via deep learning","volume":"5","author":"Truby","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Robotics Automation Lett."},{"key":"B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2016.2588888","article-title":"Design and locomotion control of a soft robot using friction manipulation and motor\u2013tendon actuation","volume":"32","author":"Vikas","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robotics"},{"key":"B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1661","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364910368147","article-title":"Design and kinematic modeling of constant curvature continuum robots: A review","volume":"29","author":"Webster","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Robotics Res."},{"key":"B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"015013","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/abc062","article-title":"Design of fiber-reinforced soft bending pneumatic artificial muscles for wearable tremor suppression devices","volume":"30","author":"Wirekoh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3081","DOI":"10.1109\/LRA.2021.3061311","article-title":"FEM-based gain-scheduling control of a soft trunk robot","volume":"6","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Robotics Automation Lett."}],"container-title":["Frontiers in Robotics and AI"],"original-title":[],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frobt.2023.1056118\/full","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]],"date-time":"2023-03-15T04:22:54Z","timestamp":1678854174000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/articles\/10.3389\/frobt.2023.1056118\/full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]},"references-count":36,"alternative-id":["10.3389\/frobt.2023.1056118"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/frobt.2023.1056118","relation":{},"ISSN":["2296-9144"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2296-9144","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,15]]},"article-number":"1056118"}}