{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T07:04:06Z","timestamp":1760598246822,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,30]],"date-time":"2023-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1685404800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/V027379\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/V027379\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Robot. AI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, the problem of attitude estimation of a quad-copter system equipped with a multi-rate camera and gyroscope sensors is addressed through extension of a sampling importance re-sampling (SIR) particle filter (PF). Attitude measurement sensors, such as cameras, usually suffer from a slow sampling rate and processing time delay compared to inertial sensors, such as gyroscopes. A discretized attitude kinematics in Euler angles is employed where the gyroscope noisy measurements are considered the model input, leading to a stochastic uncertain system model. Then, a multi-rate delayed PF is proposed so that when no camera measurement is available, the sampling part is performed only. In this case, the delayed camera measurements are used for weight computation and re-sampling. Finally, the efficiency of the proposed method is demonstrated through both numerical simulation and experimental work on the DJI Tello quad-copter system. The images captured by the camera are processed using the ORB feature extraction method and the homography method in Python-OpenCV, which is used to calculate the rotation matrix from the Tello\u2019s image frames.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2023.1090174","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,31]],"date-time":"2023-05-31T14:54:46Z","timestamp":1685544886000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Vision-based particle filtering for quad-copter attitude estimation using multirate delayed measurements"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Nargess","family":"Sadeghzadeh-Nokhodberiz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Iranshahi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Allahyar","family":"Montazeri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.3390\/drones6010018","article-title":"Enhanced attitude and altitude estimation for indoor autonomous uavs","volume":"6","author":"Bassolillo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drones"},{"key":"B2","first-page":"404","article-title":"Surf: Speeded up robust features","volume-title":"European conference on computer vision","author":"Bay","year":"2006"},{"key":"B3","first-page":"283","article-title":"Towards a cooperative robotic system for autonomous pipe cutting in nuclear decommissioning","author":"Burrell","year":"2018"},{"key":"B4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2017-0673","article-title":"Homography-based state estimation for autonomous uav landing","author":"Chavez","year":"2017"},{"key":"B5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5337","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2004-5337","article-title":"Particle filtering for sequential spacecraft attitude estimation","volume-title":"Aiaa guidance, navigation, and control conference and exhibit","author":"Cheng","year":"2004"},{"key":"B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.2514\/1.g005034","article-title":"Incorporating delayed and multirate measurements in navigation filter for autonomous space rendezvous","volume":"43","author":"Comellini","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. 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