{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T02:52:40Z","timestamp":1770346360069,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,30]],"date-time":"2023-10-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698624000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["frontiersin.org"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Front. Robot. AI"],"abstract":"<jats:p><jats:bold>Objective:<\/jats:bold> In emergency medicine, airway management is a core skill that includes endotracheal intubation (ETI), a common technique that can result in ineffective ventilation and laryngotracheal injury if executed incorrectly. We present a method for automatically generating performance feedback during ETI simulator training, potentially augmenting training outcomes on robotic simulators.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Method:<\/jats:bold> Electret microphones recorded ultrasonic echoes pulsed through the complex geometry of a simulated airway during ETI performed on a full-size patient simulator. As the endotracheal tube is inserted deeper and the cuff is inflated, the resulting changes in geometry are reflected in the recorded signal. We trained machine learning models to classify 240 intubations distributed equally between six conditions: three insertion depths and two cuff inflation states. The best performing models were cross validated in a leave-one-subject-out scheme.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Results:<\/jats:bold> Best performance was achieved by transfer learning with a convolutional neural network pre-trained for sound classification, reaching global accuracy above 98% on 1-second-long audio test samples. A support vector machine trained on different features achieved a median accuracy of 85% on the full label set and 97% on a reduced label set of tube depth only.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Significance:<\/jats:bold> This proof-of-concept study demonstrates a method of measuring qualitative performance criteria during simulated ETI in a relatively simple way that does not damage ecological validity of the simulated anatomy. As traditional sonar is hampered by geometrical complexity compounded by the introduced equipment in ETI, the accuracy of machine learning methods in this confined design space enables application in other invasive procedures. By enabling better interaction between the human user and the robotic simulator, this approach could improve training experiences and outcomes in medical simulation for ETI as well as many other invasive clinical procedures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2023.1218174","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,30]],"date-time":"2023-10-30T10:46:17Z","timestamp":1698662777000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/crossmark-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Playing the pipes: acoustic sensing and machine learning for performance feedback during endotracheal intubation simulation"],"prefix":"10.3389","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Torjus L.","family":"Steffensen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Barge","family":"Bartnes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maja L.","family":"Fuglstad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marius","family":"Auflem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Steinert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1965","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"B1","first-page":"1373","volume-title":"Airway management in the adult.","author":"Artime","year":"2020"},{"key":"B2","volume-title":"Morgan & mikhail\u2019s clinical anesthesiology","author":"Butterworth","year":"2013"},{"key":"B3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1961189.1961199","article-title":"LIBSVM: a library for support vector machines","volume":"2","author":"Chang","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACM Trans. 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